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Solid State Relay

Solid State Relays are normally-open semiconductor equivalents of the electromechanical
relay that can be used to control electrical loads without the use of moving parts.

Unlike electro-mechanical relays (EMR) which use coils, magnetic fields, springs and
mechanical contacts to operate, the solid state relay, or SSR, has no moving parts but instead
uses the electrical and optical properties of solid state semiconductors to perform its input to
output isolation and switching functions.

Just like a normal electro-mechanical relay, SSRs provide complete electrical isolation
between their input and output contacts with its output acting like a conventional electrical
switch in that it has very high, almost infinite resistance when non-conducting (open), and a
very low resistance when conducting (closed). Solid state relays can be designed to switch
both AC or DC currents by using an SCR, TRIAC, or switching transistor output instead of
the usual mechanical normally-open (NO) contacts.

While the solid state relay and electro-mechanical relay are fundamentally similar in that
their low voltage input is electrically isolated from the output that switches and controls a
load, electro-mechanical relays have a limited contact life cycle, can take up a lot of room
and have slower switch speeds, especially large power relays and contactors. Solid state
relays have no such limitations.
Thus the main advantages solid state relays have over conventional electro-mechanical relays
is that they have no moving parts to wear out, and therefore no contact bounce issues, are
able to switch both ON and OFF much faster than a mechanical relays armature can
move, as well as zero voltage turn-on and zero current turn-off eliminating electrical noise
and transients.

Solid state relays can be bought in standard off-the-shelf packages ranging from just a few
volts or amperes to many hundreds of volts and amperes of output switching capability.
However, solid state relays with very high current ratings (150A plus) are still too expensive
to buy due to their power semiconductor and heat sinking requirements, and as such, cheaper
electro-mechanical contactors are still used.

Similar to an electro-mechanical relay, a small input voltage, typically 3 to 32 volts DC, can
be used to control a much large output voltage, or current. For example 240V, 10Amps. This
makes them ideal for microcontroller, PIC and Arduino interfacing as a low-current, 5-volt
signal from say a micro-controller or logic gate can be used to control a particular circuit
load, and this is achieved with the use of opto-isolators.

Solid State Relay Input

One of the main components of a solid state relay (SSR) is an opto-isolator (also called an
optocoupler) which contains one (or more) infra-red light-emitting diode, or LED light
source, and a photo sensitive device within a single case. The opto-isolator isolates the input
from the output.

The LED light source is connected to the SSRs input drive section and provides optical
coupling through a gap to an adjacent photo sensitive transistor, darlington pair or triac.
When a current passes through the LED, it illuminates and its light is focused across the gap
to a photo-transistor/photo-triac.

Thus the output of an optocoupled SSR is turned ON by energising this LED, usually with
low-voltage signal. As the only connection between the input and output is a beam of light,
high voltage isolation (usually several thousand volts) is achieved by means of this internal
opto-isolation. Not only does the opto-isolator provide a higher degree of input/output
isolation, it can also transmit dc and low-frequency signals. Also, the LED and photo-
sensitive device could be totally separate from each other and optically coupled by means of
an optical fibre.

The input circuitry of an SSR may consist of just a single current limiting resistor in series
with the LED of the opto-isolator, or of a more complex circuit with rectification, current
regulation, reverse polarity protection, filtering, etc.

To activate or turn ON a sold state relay into conduction, a voltage greater than its
minimum value (usually 3 volts DC) must be applied to its input terminals (equivalent to the
electro-mechanical relay coil). This DC signal may be derived from a mechanical switch, a
logic gate or micro-controller, as shown.

Solid State Relay DC Input Circuit

When using mechanical contacts, switches, push-buttons, other relay contacts, etc, as the
activating signal, the supply voltage used can be equal to the SSRs minimum input voltage
value, whereas when using solid state devices such as transistors, gates and micro-controllers,
the minimum supply voltage needs to be one or two volts above the SSRs turn-on voltage to
account for the switching devices internal voltage drop.

But as well as using a DC voltage, either sinking or sourcing, to switch the solid state relay
into conduction, we can also use a sinusoidal waveform as well by adding a bridge rectifier
for full-wave rectification and a filter circuit to the DC input as shown.

Solid State Relay AC Input Circuit

Bridge rectifiers convert a sinusoidal voltage into full-wave rectified pulses at twice the input
frequency. The problem here is that these voltage pulses start and end from zero volts which
means that they will fall below the minimum turn-on voltage requirements of the SSRs input
threshold causing the output to turn on and off every half cycle.

To overcome this erratic firing of the output, we can smooth out the rectified ripples by using
a smoothing capacitor, (C1) on the output of the bridge rectifier. The charging and
discharging effect of the capacitor will raise the the DC component of the rectified signal
above the maximum turn-on voltage value of the solid state relays input. Then even though a
constantly changing sinusoidal voltage waveform is used, the input of the SSR sees a
constant DC voltage.

The values of the voltage dropping resistor, R1 and the smoothing capacitor, C1 are chosen to
suit the supply voltage, 120 volts AC or 240 volts AC as well as the input impedance of the
solid state relay. But something around 40k and 10uF would do.

Then with this bridge rectifier and smoothing capacitor circuit added, a standard DC solid
state relay can be controlled using either an AC or nonpolarised DC supply. Of course,
manufacturers produce and sell AC input solid state relays (usually 90 to 280 volts AC)
already.

Solid State Relay Output

The output switching capabilities of a solid state relay can be either AC or DC similar to its
input voltage requirements. The output circuit of most standard solid state relays are
configured to perform only one type of switching action giving the equivalent of a normally-
open, single-pole, single-throw (SPST-NO) operation of an electro-mechanical relay.

For most DC SSRs the solid state switching device commonly used are power transistors,
Darlingtons and MOSFETs, whereas for an AC SSR, the switching device is either a triac or
back-to-back thyristors. Thyristors are preferred due to their high voltage and current
capabilities. A single thyristor can also be used within a bridge rectifier circuit as shown.

Solid State Relay Output Circuit

The most common application of solid state relays is in the switching of an AC load, whether
that is to control the AC power for ON/OFF switching, light dimming, motor speed control or
other such applications where power control is needed, these AC loads can be easily
controlled with a low current DC voltage using a solid state relay providing long life and high
switching speeds.

One of the biggest advantages of solid state relays over an electromechanical relay is its
ability to switch OFF AC loads at the point of zero load current, thereby completely
eliminating the arcing, electrical noise and contact bounce associated with conventional
mechanical relays and inductive loads.

This is because AC switching solid state relays use SCRs and TRIACs as their output
switching device which continues conducting, once the input signal is removed, until the AC
current flowing through the device falls below its threshold or holding current value. Then
the output of an SSR can never switch OFF in the middle of a sine wave peak.

Zero current turn-off is a major advantage for using a solid state relay as it reduces electrical
noise and the back-emf associated with the switching of inductive loads as seen as arcing by
the contacts of an electro-mechanical relay. Consider the output waveform diagram below of
a typical AC solid state relay.

Solid State Relay Output Waveform

With no input signal applied, no load current flows through the SSR as it is effectively OFF
(open-circuited) and the output terminals see the full AC supply voltage. With the application
of a DC input signal, no matter which part of the sinusoidal waveform, either positive or
negative the cycle is going through, due to zero-voltage switching characteristics of the SSR,
the output only turns-on when the waveform crosses over the zero point.

As the supply voltage increases in either a positive or negative direction, it reaches the
minimum value required to turn the output thyristors or triac fully ON (usually less than
about 15 volts). The voltage drop across the SSRs output terminals is that of the switching
devices on-state voltage drop, VT (usually less than 2 volts). Thus any high inrush currents
associated with reactive or lamp loads are greatly reduced.

When the DC input voltage signal is removed, the output does not suddenly turn-off as once
triggered into conduction, the thyristor or triac used as the switching device stays ON for the
remainder of the half cycle until the load currents drops below the devices holding current, at
which point it switches OFF. Thus the high dv/dt back emfs associated with switching
inductive loads in the middle of a sine wave is greatly reduced.

Then the main advantages of the AC solid state relay over the electro-mechanical relay are its
zero crossing function which turns ON the SSR when the AC load voltage is close to zero
volts, thus suppressing any high inrush currents as the load current will always start from a
point close to 0V, and the inherent zero current turn-off characteristic of the thyristor or triac.
Therefore there is a maximum possible turn-off delay (between the removal of the input
signal and the removal of load current) of one half cycle.

Phase Dimming Solid State Relay

While solid state relays can perform straight forward zero-crossing switching of a load, they
can also perform much more complicated functions by means of digital logic circuits,
microprocessors and memories. Another excellent application of a solid state relay is in lamp
dimming applications, whether in the home or for a show or concert.

Non-zero (instant-on) switching solid state relays turn-on immediately after the application of
the input control signal as opposed to the zero crossing SSR above which waits until the next
zero-crossing point of the AC sine-wave. This random-fire switching is used in resistive
applications such as lamp dimming and applications that require the load only to be energised
for a small portion of the AC cycle.

Random Switching Output Waveform

While this allows for the phase control of the load waveform, the main problem random turn-
on SSRs is that the initial load surge current at the instant the relay turns-on, may be high
due to the SSR switching power when the supply voltage is close to its peak value (90o).
When the input signal is removed, it stops conducting when the load current falls below the
thyristors or triacs holding current as shown. Obviously for a DC SSR, the ON-OFF
switching action is instant.

The solid state relay is ideal for a wide range of ON/OFF switching applications as they have
no moving parts or contacts unlike an electro-mechanical relay (EMR). There are many
different commercial types to choose from for both AC and DC input control signals as well
as AC and DC output switching as they employ semiconductor switching elements, such as
thyristors, triacs and transistors.

But by using a combination of a good opto-isolator and a triac, we can make our own
inexpensive and simple solid state relay to control an AC load such as a heater, lamp or
solenoid. As an opto-isolator only needs a small amount of input/control power to operate,
the control signal could be from a PIC, Arduino, Raspberry PI, or any other such micro-
controller.

Solid State Relay Example No1

Lets assume we want a micro-controller with a digital output port signal of only +5 volts to
control a 120V AC, 600 watt heating element. For this we could use the MOC 3020 opto-
triac isolator, but the internal triac can only pass a maximum current (ITSM) of 1 Amps peak at
the peak of a 120V AC supply so an additional switching triac must also be used.

First lets consider the input characteristics of the MOC 3020 opto-isolator (other opto-triacs
are available). The opto-isolators datasheet tells us that the forward voltage, (VF) drop of the
input light emitting diode is 1.2 volts and the maximum forward current, (IF) is 50mA.
The LED needs about 10mA to shine reasonably brightly up to its maximum value of 50mA.
However the digital output port of the micro-controller can only supply a maximum of
30mA. Then the value of current required lies somewhere between 10 and 30 milli-amperes.
Therefore:

Thus a series current limiting resistor with a value between 126 and 380s can be used. As
the digital output port always switches +5 volts and to reduce the power dissipation through
the opto-couplers LED, we will choose a preferred resistive value of 240s. This gives an
LED forward current of less than 16mA. In this example, any preferred resistor value
between 150 and 330s would do.

The heating element load is 600 watts resistive. Using a 120V AC supply would give us a
load current of 5 amperes (I = P/V). As we want to control this load current in both half
cycles (all 4 quadrants) of the AC waveform, we would require a mains switching triac.

The BTA06-600B is a 6 amps (IT(RMS)) 600 volt triac suitable for general purpose ON/OFF
switching of AC loads, but any similar 6 to 8 amp rated triac would do. Also this switching
triac requires only 50mA of gate drive to start conduction which is far less than the 1 amp
maximum rating of the MOC 3020 opto-isolator.

Consider that the output triac of the opto-isolator has switched ON at the peak value (90o) of
the 120VRMS AC supply voltage. This peak voltage has a value of: 120 x 1.414 = 170Vpk. If
the opto-triacs maximum current (ITSM) is 1 ampere peak, then the minimum value of series
resistance require is 170/1 = 170s, or 180s to the nearest preferred value. This value of
180s will protect the opto-coupler output triac, as well as the gate of the BTA06-600B triac
on a 120VAC supply.

If the triac of the opto-isolator switches ON at the zero crossover value (0o) of the 120VRMS
AC supply voltage, then the minimum voltage required to supply the required 50mA gate
drive current forcing the switching triac into conduction will be: 180 x 50mA = 9.0 volts.
Then the triac fires into conduction when the sinusoidal Gate-to-MT1 voltage is greater than
9 volts.

Thus the minimum voltage required after the zero crossover point of the AC waveform would
be 9 volts peak with the power dissipation in this series gate resistor being very small so a
180, 0.5 watt rated resistor could safely be used. Consider the circuit below.

AC Solid State Relay Circuit

This type of optocoupler configuration forms the basis of a very simple solid state relay
application which can be used to control any AC mains powered load such as lamps and
motors. Here we have used the MOC 3020 which is a random switching isolator. The MOC
3041 opto-triac isolator has the same characteristics but with built-in zero-crossing detection
allowing the load to receive full power without the heavy inrush currents when switching
inductive loads.

Diode D1 prevents damage due to reverse connection of the input voltage, while the 56 ohm
resistor (R3) shunts any di/dt currents when the triac is OFF eliminating false triggering. It
also ties the gate terminal to MT1 ensuring the triac turns-off fully.

If used with a pulse width modulated, PWM input signal, the ON/OFF switching frequency
should be set to less than 10Hz maximum for an AC load otherwise the output switching of
this solid state relay circuit may not be able to keep up.

Previous
AC/DC Converters

Next
Real-Time Clocks
Other Tutorials in Power Electronics
Solid State Relay
Unijunction Transistor
Diac Tutorial
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
Triac Tutorial
Thyristor Circuit
Thyristor Tutorial

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Home / Input/Output Devices / Electrical Relay

Electrical Relay
Thus far we have seen a selection of Input devices that can be used to detect or sense a
variety of physical variables and signals and are therefore called Sensors.

But there are also a variety of electrical and electronic devices which are classed as Output
devices used to control or operate some external physical process. These output devices are
commonly called Actuators.
Actuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding physical quantity such as
movement, force, sound etc. An actuator is also classed as a transducer because it changes
one type of physical quantity into another and is usually activated or operated by a low
voltage command signal. Actuators can be classed as either binary or continuous devices
based upon the number of stable states their output has.

For example, a relay is a binary actuator as it has two stable states, either energised and
latched or de-energised and unlatched, while a motor is a continuous actuator because it can
rotate through a full 360o motion. The most common types of actuators or output devices are
Electrical Relays, Lights, Motors and Loudspeakers.

We saw previously that solenoids can be used to electrically open latches, doors, open or
close valves, and in a variety of robotic and mechatronic applications, etc. However, if the
solenoid plunger is used to operate one or more sets of electrical contacts, we have a device
called a relay that is so useful it can be used in an infinite number of different ways and in
this tutorial we will look at Electrical Relays.

Electrical Relays can also be divided into mechanical action relays called
Electromechanical Relays and those which use semiconductor transistors, thyristors, triacs,
etc, as their switching device called Solid State Relays or SSRs.

The Electromechanical Relay

The term Relay generally refers to a device that provides an electrical connection between
two or more points in response to the application of a control signal. The most common and
widely used type of electrical relay is the electromechanical relay or EMR.

An Electrical Relay

The most fundamental control of any equipment is the ability to turn it ON and OFF. The
easiest way to do this is using switches to interrupt the electrical supply. Although switches
can be used to control something, they have their disadvantages. The biggest one is that they
have to be manually (physically) turned ON or OFF. Also, they are relatively large, slow
and only switch small electrical currents.

Electrical Relays however, are basically electrically operated switches that come in many
shapes, sizes and power ratings suitable for all types of applications. Relays can also have
single or multiple contacts within a single package with the larger power relays used for
mains voltage or high current switching applications being called Contactors.
In this tutorial about electrical relays we are just concerned with the fundamental operating
principles of light duty electromechanical relays we can use in motor control or robotic
circuits. Such relays are used in general electrical and electronic control or switching circuits
either mounted directly onto PCB boards or connected free standing and in which the load
currents are normally fractions of an ampere up to 20+ amperes. The relay circuit are
common in Electronics applications.

As their name implies, electromechanical relays are electro-magnetic devices that convert a
magnetic flux generated by the application of a low voltage electrical control signal either AC
or DC across the relay terminals, into a pulling mechanical force which operates the electrical
contacts within the relay. The most common form of electromechanical relay consist of an
energizing coil called the primary circuit wound around a permeable iron core.

This iron core has both a fixed portion called the yoke, and a moveable spring loaded part
called the armature, that completes the magnetic field circuit by closing the air gap between
the fixed electrical coil and the moveable armature. The armature is hinged or pivoted
allowing it to freely move within the generated magnetic field closing the electrical contacts
that are attached to it. Connected between the yoke and armature is normally a spring (or
springs) for the return stroke to reset the contacts back to their initial rest position when the
relay coil is in the de-energized condition, i.e. turned OFF.

Electromechanical Relay Construction

In our simple relay above, we have two sets of electrically conductive contacts. Relays may
be Normally Open, or Normally Closed. One pair of contacts are classed as Normally
Open, (NO) or make contacts and another set which are classed as Normally Closed, (NC)
or break contacts. In the normally open position, the contacts are closed only when the field
current is ON and the switch contacts are pulled towards the inductive coil.

In the normally closed position, the contacts are permanently closed when the field current is
OFF as the switch contacts return to their normal position. These terms Normally Open,
Normally Closed or Make and Break Contacts refer to the state of the electrical contacts
when the relay coil is de-energized, i.e, no supply voltage connected to the relay coil.
Contact elements may be of single or double make or break designs. An example of this
arrangement is given below.

The relays contacts are electrically conductive pieces of metal which touch together
completing a circuit and allow the circuit current to flow, just like a switch. When the
contacts are open the resistance between the contacts is very high in the Mega-Ohms,
producing an open circuit condition and no circuit current flows.

When the contacts are closed the contact resistance should be zero, a short circuit, but this is
not always the case. All relay contacts have a certain amount of contact resistance when
they are closed and this is called the On-Resistance, similar to FETs.

With a new relay and contacts this ON-resistance will be very small, generally less than
0.2s because the tips are new and clean, but over time the tip resistance will increase.

For example. If the contacts are passing a load current of say 10A, then the voltage drop
across the contacts using Ohms Law is 0.2 x 10 = 2 volts, which if the supply voltage is say
12 volts then the load voltage will be only 10 volts (12 2). As the contact tips begin to wear,
and if they are not properly protected from high inductive or capacitive loads, they will start
to show signs of arcing damage as the circuit current still wants to flow as the contacts begin
to open when the relay coil is de-energized.

This arcing or sparking across the contacts will cause the contact resistance of the tips to
increase further as the contact tips become damaged. If allowed to continue the contact tips
may become so burnt and damaged to the point were they are physically closed but do not
pass any or very little current.

If this arcing damage becomes to severe the contacts will eventually weld together
producing a short circuit condition and possible damage to the circuit they are controlling. If
now the contact resistance has increased due to arcing to say 1s the volt drop across the
contacts for the same load current increases to 1 x 10 = 10 volts dc. This high voltage drop
across the contacts may be unacceptable for the load circuit especially if operating at 12 or
even 24 volts, then the faulty relay will have to be replaced.

To reduce the effects of contact arcing and high On-resistances, modern contact tips are
made of, or coated with, a variety of silver based alloys to extend their life span as given in
the following table.
Electrical Relay Contact Tip Materials

Ag (fine silver)
o 1. Electrical and thermal conductivity are the highest of all the metals.
o 2. Exhibits low contact resistance, is inexpensive and widely used.
o 3. Contacts tarnish easily through sulphurisation influence.
AgCu (silver copper)
o 1. Known as Hard silver contacts and have better wear resistance and less
tendency to arc and weld, but slightly higher contact resistance.
AgCdO (silver cadmium oxide)
o 1. Very little tendency to arc and weld, good wear resistance and arc
extinguishing properties.
AgW (silver tungsten)
o 1. Hardness and melting point are high, arc resistance is excellent.
o 2. Not a precious metal.
o 3. High contact pressure is required to reduce resistance.
o 4. Contact resistance is relatively high, and resistance to corrosion is poor.
AgNi (silver nickel)
o 1. Equals the electrical conductivity of silver, excellent arc resistance.
AgPd (silver palladium)
o 1. Low contact wear, greater hardness.
o 2. Expensive.
Platinum, Gold and Silver Alloys
o 1. Excellent corrosion resistance, used mainly for low-current circuits.

Relay manufacturers data sheets give maximum contact ratings for resistive DC loads only
and this rating is greatly reduced for either AC loads or highly inductive or capacitive loads.
In order to achieve long life and high reliability when switching alternating currents with
inductive or capacitive loads some form of arc suppression or filtering is required across the
relay contacts.

Extending the life of relay tips by reducing the amount of arcing generated as they open is
achieved by connecting a Resistor-Capacitor network called an RC Snubber Network
electrically in parallel with an electrical relay contact tips. The voltage peak, which occurs at
the instant the contacts open, will be safely short circuited by the RC network, thus
suppressing any arc generated at the contact tips. For example.

Electrical Relay Snubber Circuit

Electrical Relay Contact Types.
As well as the standard descriptions of Normally Open, (NO) and Normally Closed, (NC)
used to describe how the relays contacts are connected, relay contact arrangements can also
be classed by their actions. Electrical relays can be made up of one or more individual switch
contacts with each contact being referred to as a pole. Each one of these contacts or poles
can be connected or thrown together by energizing the relays coil and this gives rise to the
description of the contact types as being:

SPST Single Pole Single Throw

SPDT Single Pole Double Throw
DPST Double Pole Single Throw
DPDT Double Pole Double Throw

with the action of the contacts being described as Make (M) or Break (B). Then a
simple relay with one set of contacts as shown above can have a contact description of:

Single Pole Double Throw (Break before Make), or SPDT (B-M)

Examples of just some of the more common diagrams used for electrical relay contact types
to identify relays in circuit or schematic diagrams is given below but there are many more
possible configurations.

Electrical Relay Contact Configurations

 Where:
C is the Common terminal
NO is the Normally Open contact
NC is the Normally Closed contact

Electromechanical relays are also denoted by the combinations of their contacts or switching
elements and the number of contacts combined within a single relay. For example, a contact
which is normally open in the de-energised position of the relay is called a Form A contact
or make contact. Whereas a contact which is normally closed in the de-energised position of
the relay is called a Form B contact or break contact.

When both a make and a break set of contact elements are present at the same time so that the
two contacts are electrically connected to produce a common point (identified by three
connections), the set of contacts are referred to as Form C contacts or change-over contacts.
If no electrical connection exists between the make and break contacts it is referred to as a
double change-over contact.

One final point to remember about using electrical relays. It is not advisable at all to connect
relay contacts in parallel to handle higher load currents. For example, never attempt to supply
a 10A load with two relay contacts in parallel that have 5A contact ratings each, as the
mechanically operated relay contacts never close or open at exactly the same instant of time.
The result is that one of the contacts will always be overloaded even for a brief instant
resulting in premature failure of the relay over time.

Also, while electrical relays can be used to allow low power electronic or computer type
circuits to switch relatively high currents or voltages both ON or OFF. Never mix
different load voltages through adjacent contacts within the same relay such as for example,
high voltage AC (240v) and low voltage DC (12v), always use separate relays for safety.

One of the more important parts of any electrical relay is its coil. This converts electrical
current into an electromagnetic flux which is used to mechanically operate the relays
contacts. The main problem with relay coils is that they are highly inductive loads as they
are made from coils of wire. Any coil of wire has an impedance value made up of resistance
( R ) and inductance ( L ) in series (LR Series Circuit).

As the current flows through the coil a self induced magnetic field is generated around it.
When the current in the coil is turned OFF, a large back emf (electromotive force) voltage
is produced as the magnetic flux collapses within the coil (transformer theory). This induced
reverse voltage value may be very high in comparison to the switching voltage, and may
damage any semiconductor device such as a transistor, FET or micro-controller used to
operate the relay coil.
One way of preventing damage to the transistor or any switching semiconductor device, is to
connect a reverse biased diode across the relay coil.

When the current flowing through the coil is switched OFF, an induced back emf is
generated as the magnetic flux collapses in the coil.

This reverse voltage forward biases the diode which conducts and dissipates the stored
energy preventing any damage to the semiconductor transistor.

When used in this type of application the diode is generally known as a Flywheel Diode,
Free-wheeling Diode and even Fly-back Diode, but they all mean the same thing. Other
types of inductive loads which require a flywheel diode for protection are solenoids, motors
and inductive coils.

As well as using flywheel Diodes for protection of semiconductor components, other devices
used for protection include RC Snubber Networks, Metal Oxide Varistors or MOV and
Zener Diodes.

The Solid State Relay.

While the electromechanical relay (EMR) are inexpensive, easy to use and allow the
switching of a load circuit controlled by a low power, electrically isolated input signal, one of
the main disadvantages of an electromechanical relay is that it is a mechanical device, that
is it has moving parts so their switching speed (response time) due to physically movement of
the metal contacts using a magnetic field is slow.

Over a period of time these moving parts will wear out and fail, or that the contact resistance
through the constant arcing and erosion may make the relay unusable and shortens its life.
Also, they are electrically noisy with the contacts suffering from contact bounce which may
affect any electronic circuits to which they are connected.

To overcome these disadvantages of the electrical relay, another type of relay called a Solid
State Relay or (SSR) for short was developed which is a solid state contactless, pure
electronic relay.
The solid state relay being a purely electronic device has no moving parts within its design as
the mechanical contacts have been replaced by power transistors, thyristors or triacs. The
electrical separation between the input control signal and the output load voltage is
accomplished with the aid of an opto-coupler type Light Sensor.

The Solid State Relay provides a high degree of reliability, long life and reduced
electromagnetic interference (EMI), (no arcing contacts or magnetic fields), together with a
much faster almost instant response time, as compared to the conventional electromechanical
relay.

Also the input control power requirements of the solid state relay are generally low enough to
make them compatible with most IC logic families without the need for additional buffers,
drivers or amplifiers. However, being a semiconductor device they must be mounted onto
suitable heatsinks to prevent the output switching semiconductor device from over heating.

Solid State Relay

The AC type Solid State Relay turns ON at the zero crossing point of the AC sinusoidal
waveform, prevents high inrush currents when switching inductive or capacitive loads while
the inherent turn OFF feature of Thyristors and Triacs provides an improvement over the
arcing contacts of the electromechanical relays.

Like the electromechanical relays, a Resistor-Capacitor (RC) snubber network is generally

required across the output terminals of the SSR to protect the semiconductor output switching
device from noise and voltage transient spikes when used to switch highly inductive or
capacitive loads. In most modern SSRs this RC snubber network is built as standard into the
relay itself reducing the need for additional external components.

Non-zero crossing detection switching (instant ON) type SSRs are also available for phase
controlled applications such as the dimming or fading of lights at concerts, shows, disco
lighting etc, or for motor speed control type applications.

As the output switching device of a solid state relay is a semiconductor device (Transistor for
DC switching applications, or a Triac/Thyristor combination for AC switching), the voltage
drop across the output terminals of an SSR when ON is much higher than that of the
electromechanical relay, typically 1.5 2.0 volts. If switching large currents for long periods
of time an additional heat sink will be required.

Input/Output Interface Modules.

Input/Output Interface Modules, (I/O Modules) are another type of solid state relay
designed specifically to interface computers, micro-controller or PICs to real world loads
and switches. There are four basic types of I/O modules available, AC or DC Input voltage to
TTL or CMOS logic level output, and TTL or CMOS logic input to an AC or DC Output
voltage with each module containing all the necessary circuitry to provide a complete
interface and isolation within one small device. They are available as individual solid state
modules or integrated into 4, 8 or 16 channel devices.

Modular Input/Output Interface System.

The main disadvantages of solid state relays (SSRs) compared to that of an equivalent
wattage electromechanical relay is their higher costs, the fact that only single pole single
throw (SPST) types are available, OFF-state leakage currents flow through the switching
device, and a high ON-state voltage drop and power dissipation resulting in additional heat
sinking requirements. Also they can not switch very small load currents or high frequency
signals such as audio or video signals although special Solid State Switches are available for
this type of application.

In this tutorial about Electrical Relays, we have looked at both the electromechanical relay
and the solid state relay which can be used as an output device (actuator) to control a physical
process. In the next tutorial we will continue our look at output devices called Actuators and
especially one that converts a small electrical signal into a corresponding physical movement
using electromagnetism. The output device is called a Solenoid.
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Home / Input/Output Devices / Thermistors

Thermistors
The Thermistor is a special type of variable resistive element that changes its physical
resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.

The Thermistor is a solid state temperature sensing device that acts a bit like an electrical
resistor but is temperature sensitive. Thermistors can be used to produce an analogue output
voltage with variations in ambient temperature and as such can be referred to as a transducer.
This is because it creates a change in its electrical properties due to a physical change in heat.

A thermistor is basically a two-terminal solid state thermally sensitive transducer made from
sensitive semiconductor based metal oxides with metallised or sintered connecting leads onto
a ceramic disc or bead. This allows it to change its resistive value in proportion to small
changes in temperature. In other words, as its temperature changes, so too does its resistance
and as such its name, Thermistor is a combination of the words THERM-ally sensitive res-
ISTOR.

While the change in resistance due to heat is generally undesirable in standard resistors, this
effect can be put to good use in many temperature detection circuits. Thus being non-linear
variable-resistance devices, thermistors are commonly used as temperature sensors having
many applications to measure the temperature of both liquids and ambient air.

Also, being a solid state device made from highly sensitive metal oxides, they operate at the
molecular level with the outermost (valence) electrons becoming more active and producing a
negative temperature coefficient, or less active producing a positive temperature coefficient
as the temperature of the thermistor is increased. This means that they can have very good
reproducible resistance verses temperature characteristics allowing them to operate up to
temperatures of about 200oC.
 Typical Thermistor

While the primarily used of thermistors are as resistive temperature sensors, being resistive
devices belonging the the resistor family, they can also be used in series with a component or
device to control the current flowing through them. In other words, they can also be used as
current-limiting devices.

Thermistors are available in a range of types, materials and sizes depending on the response
time and operating temperature. Also, hermetically sealed thermistors eliminate errors in
resistance readings due to moisture penetration while offering high operating temperatures
and a compact size. The three most common types are: Bead thermistors, Disk thermistors,
and Glass encapsulated thermistors.

These heat-dependent resistors can operate in one of two ways, either increasing or
decreasing their resistive value with changes in temperature. Then there are two types of
thermistors available: negative temperature coefficient (NTC) of resistance and positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) of resistance.

Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor

Negative temperature coefficient of resistance thermistors, or NTC thermistors for short,
reduce or decrease their resistive value as the operating temperature around them increases.
Generally, NTC thermistors are the most commonly used type of temperature sensors as they
can be used in virtually any type of equipment where temperature plays a role.

NTC temperature thermistors have a negative electrical resistance versus temperature (R/T)
relationship. The relatively large negative response of an NTC thermistor means that even
small changes in temperature can cause significant changes in its electrical resistance. This
makes them ideal for accurate temperature measurement and control.

We said previously that a thermistor is an electronic component whose resistance is highly

dependent on temperature so if we send a constant current through the thermistor and then
measure the voltage drop across it, we can thus determine its resistance and temperature.

NTC thermistors reduce in resistance with an increase in temperature and are available in a
variety of base resistances and curves. They are usually characterised by their base resistance
at room temperature, that is 25oC, (77oF) as this provides a convenient reference point. So for
example, 2k2 at 25oC, 10k at 25oC or 47k at 25oC, etc.

Another important characteristic is the B value. The B value is a material constant which is
determined by the ceramic material from which it is made and describes the gradient of the
resistive (R/T) curve over a particular temperature range between two temperature points.
Each thermistor material will have a different material constant and therefore a different
resistance versus temperature curve.

Then the B value will define the thermistors resistive value at the first temperature or base
point, (which is usually 25oC), called T1, and the thermistors resistive value at a second
temperature point, for example 100oC, called T2. Therefore the B value will define the
thermistors material constant between the range of T1 and T2. That is BT1/T2 or B25/100 with
typical NTC thermistor B values given anywhere between about 3000 and about 5000.

Note however, that both the temperature points of T1 and T2 are calculated in the
temperature units of Kelvin where 00C = 273.15 Kelvin. Thus a value of 25oC is equal to 25o
+ 273.15 = 298.15K, and 100oC is equal to 100o + 273.15 = 373.15K, etc.

So by knowing the B value of a particular thermistor (obtained from manufacturers

datasheet), it is possible to produce a table of temperature versus resistance to construct a
suitable graph using the following normalised equation:

Thermistor Equation

Where:
T1 is the first temperature point in Kelvin
T2 is the second temperature point in Kelvin
R1 is the thermistors resistance at temperature T1 in Ohms
R2 is the thermistors resistance at temperature T2 in Ohms

Thermistor Example No1

A 10k NTC thermistor has a B value of 3455 between the temperature range of 25 to
100oC. Calculate its resistive value at 25oC and at 100oC.

Data given: B = 3455, R1 = 10k at 25o. In order to convert the temperature scale from
degrees Celsius, oC to degrees Kelvin add the mathematical constant 273.15

The value of R1 is already given as its 10k base resistance, thus the value of R2 at 100oC is
calculated as:
Giving the following two point characteristics graph of:

Note that in this simple example, only two points were found, but generally thermistors
change their resistance exponentially with changes in temperature so their characteristic
curve is nonlinear, therefore the more temperature points are calculated the more accurate
will be the curve.

Temperature
10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
(oC)
Resistance
18476 12185 10000 8260 5740 4080 2960 2188 1645 1257 973 765 608
()

and these points can be plotted as shown to give a more accurate characteristics curve for the
10k NTC Thermistor which has a B-value of 3455.

NTC Thermistor Characteristics Curve

Notice that it has a negative temperature coefficient (NTC), that is its resistance decreases
with increasing temperatures.

Using a Thermistor to Measure Temperature.

So how can we use a thermistor to measure temperature. Hopefully by now we know that a
thermistor is a resistive device and therefore according to Ohms law, if we pass a current
through it, a voltage drop will be produced across it. As a thermistor is an active type of a
sensor, that is, it requires an excitation signal for its operation, any changes in its resistance as
a result of changes in temperature can be converted into a voltage change.

The simplest way of doing this is to use the thermistor as part of a potential divider circuit as
shown. A constant voltage is applied across the resistor and thermistor series circuit with the
output voltage measured across the thermistor.

If for example we use a 10k thermistor with a series resistor of 10k, then the output
voltage at the base temperature of 25oC will be half the supply voltage.

When the resistance of the thermistor changes due to changes in temperature, the fraction of
the supply voltage across the thermistor also changes producing an output voltage that is
proportional to the fraction of the total series resistance between the output terminals.

Thus the potential divider circuit is an example of a simple resistance to voltage converter
where the resistance of the thermistor is controlled by temperature with the output voltage
produced being proportional to the temperature. So the hotter the thermistor gets, the lower
the voltage.

If we reversed the positions of the series resistor, RS and the thermistor, RTH, then the output
voltage will change in the opposite direction, that is the hotter the thermistor gets, the higher
the output voltage.

We can use ntc thermistors as part of a basic temperature sensing configuration using a
bridge circuit as shown. The relationship between resistors R1 and R2 sets the reference
voltage, VREF to the value required. For example, if both R1 and R2 are of the same resistive
value, the reference voltage will be equal to half of the supply voltage. That is Vs/2.
As the temperature and therefore the resistance of the thermistor changes, the voltage at VTH
also changes either higher or lower than that at VREF producing a positive or negative output
signal to the connected amplifier.

The amplifier circuit used for this basic temperature sensing bridge circuit could act as a
differential amplifier for high sensitivity and amplification, or a simple Schmitt-trigger circuit
for ON-OFF switching.

The problem with passing a current through a thermistor in this way, is that thermistors
experience what is called self-heating effects, that is the I2.R power dissipation could be high
enough to create more heat than can be dissipated by the thermistor affecting its resistive
value producing false results.

Thus it is possible that if the current through the thermistor is too high it would result in
increased power dissipation and as the temperature increases, its resistance decreases causing
more current to flow, which increases the temperature further resulting in what is known as
Thermal Runaway. In other words, we want the thermistor to be hot due to the external
temperature being measured and not by itself heating up.

Then the value for the series resistor, RS above should be chosen to provide a reasonably
wide response over the range of temperatures for which the thermistor is likely to be used
while at the same time limiting the current to a safe value at the highest temperature.

One way of improving on this and having a more accurate conversion of resistance against
temperature (R/T) is by driving the thermistor with a constant current source. The change in
resistance can be measured by using a small and measured direct current, or DC, passed
through the thermistor in order to measure the voltage drop produced.

Thermistor Used For Inrush Current Suppression

We have seen that thermistors are primarily used as resistive temperature sensitive
transducers, but the resistance of a thermistor can be changed either by external temperature
changes or by changes in temperature caused by an electrical current flowing through them,
as after all, they are resistive devices.

Ohms Law tells us that when an electrical current passes through a resistance R, as a result
of the applied voltage, power is consumed in the form of heat due to the I2R heating effect.
Because of the self-heating effect of current in a thermistor, a thermistor can change its
resistance with changes in current.

Inductive electrical equipment such as motors, transformers, ballast lighting, etc, suffer from
excessive inrush currents when they are first turned-on. But series connected thermistors can
be used to effectively limit these high initial currents to a sfe value. NTC thermistors with
low values of cold resistance (at 25oC) are generally used for current regulation.

Inrush Current Limiting Thermistor

Inrush current suppressors and surge limiters are types of series connected thermistor whose
resistance drops to a very low value as it is heated by the load current passing through it. At
the initial turn-on, the thermistors cold resistance value (its base resistance) is fairly high
controlling the initial inrush current to the load.

As a result of the load current, the thermistor heats up and reduces its resistance relatively
slowly to the point were the power dissipated across it is sufficient to maintain its low
resistance value with most of the applied voltage developed across the load.

Due to the thermal inertia of its mass this heating effect takes a few seconds during which the
load current increases gradually rather than instantaneously, so any high inrush current is
restricted and the power it draws reduces accordingly. Because of this thermal action, inrush
current suppression thermistors can run very hot in the low-resistance state so require a cool-
down or recovery period after power is removed to allow the resistance of the NTC
thermistor to increase sufficiently to provide the required inrush current suppression the next
time it is needed.

Thus the speed of response of a current limiting thermistor is given by its time constant. That
is, the time taken for its resistance to change by by 63% (i.e. 1 to 1/e) of the total change. For
example, suppose the ambient temperature changes from 0 to 100oC, then the 63% time
constant would be the time taken for the thermistor to have a resistive value at 63oC.

Thus NTC thermistors provide protection from undesirably high inrush currents, while their
resistance remains negligibly low during continuous operation supplying power to the load.
The advantage here is that they able to effectively handle much higher inrush currents than
standard fixed current limiting resistors with the same power consumption.

Thermistor Summary
We have seen here in this tutorial about thermistors, that a thermistor is a two terminal
resistive transducer which changes its resistive value with changes in surrounding ambient
temperature, hence the name thermal-resistor, or simply thermistor.
Thermistors are inexpensive, easily-obtainable temperature sensors constructed using
semiconductor metal oxides, and are available with either a negative temperature coefficient,
(NTC) of resistance or a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) of resistance. The difference
being that NTC thermistors reduce their resistance as the temperature increases, while PTC
thermistors increase their resistance as the temperature increases.

NTC thermistors are the most commonly used (especially the 10K ntc thermistor) and along
with an addition series resistor, RS can be used as part of a simple potential divider circuit so
that changes to its resistance due to changes in temperature, produces a temperature-related
output voltage.

However, the operating current of the thermistor must be kept as low as possible to reduce
any self-heating effects. If they pass operating currents which are too high, they can create
more heat than can be quickly dissipated from the thermistor which may cause false results.

Thermistors are characterised by their base resistance and their B value. The base resistance,
for example, 10k, is the resistance of the thermistor at a given temperature, usually 25oC
and is defined as: R25. The B value is a fixed material constant that describes the shape of the
slope of the resistive curve over temperature (R/T).

We have also seen that thermistors can be used to measure an external temperature or can be
used control a current as a result of the I2R heating effect caused by the current flowing
through it. By connecting an NTC thermistor in series with a load, it is possible to effectively
limit the high inrush currents.

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Home / Inductors / LR Series Circuit

LR Series Circuit
In our first tutorial about Inductors, we looked briefly at the time constant of an inductor
stating that the current flowing through an inductor could not change instantaneously, but
would increase at a constant rate determined by the self-induced emf in the inductor.

In other words, an inductor in an electrical circuit opposes the flow of current, ( i ) through it.
While this is perfectly correct, we made the assumption in the tutorial that it was an ideal
inductor which had no resistance or capacitance associated with its coil windings.

However, in the real world ALL coils whether they are chokes, solenoids, relays or any
wound component will always have a certain amount of resistance no matter how small. This
is because the actual coils turns of wire being used to make it uses copper wire which has a
resistive value.

Then for real world purposes we can consider our simple coil as being an Inductance, L in
series with a Resistance, R. In other words forming an LR Series Circuit.

A LR Series Circuit consists basically of an inductor of inductance L connected in series

with a resistor of resistance R. The resistance R is the DC resistive value of the wire turns or
loops that goes into making up the inductors coil. Consider the LR series circuit below.

The LR Series Circuit

The above LR series circuit is connected across a constant voltage source, (the battery) and a
switch. Assume that the switch, S is open until it is closed at a time t = 0, and then remains
permanently closed producing a step response type voltage input. The current, i begins to
flow through the circuit but does not rise rapidly to its maximum value of Imax as determined
by the ratio of V / R (Ohms Law).

This limiting factor is due to the presence of the self induced emf within the inductor as a
result of the growth of magnetic flux, (Lenzs Law). After a time the voltage source
neutralizes the effect of the self induced emf, the current flow becomes constant and the
induced current and field are reduced to zero.
We can use Kirchoffs Voltage Law, (KVL) to define the individual voltage drops that exist
around the circuit and then hopefully use it to give us an expression for the flow of current.

Kirchoffs voltage law (KVL) gives us:

The voltage drop across the resistor, R is IR (Ohms Law).

The voltage drop across the inductor, L is by now our familiar expression L = di/dt

Then the final expression for the individual voltage drops around the LR series circuit can be
given as:

We can see that the voltage drop across the resistor depends upon the current, i, while the
voltage drop across the inductor depends upon the rate of change of the current, di/dt. When
the current is equal to zero, ( i = 0 ) at time t = 0 the above expression, which is also a first
order differential equation, can be rewritten to give the value of the current at any instant of
time as:

Expression for the Current in an LR Series Circuit

Where:
V is in Volts
 R is in Ohms
L is in Henries
t is in Seconds
e is the base of the Natural Logarithm = 2.71828

The R/L term in the above equation is known commonly as the Time Constant, ( ) of the
LR series circuit and V/R also represents the final steady state current value in the circuit.
Once the current reaches this maximum steady state value at 5, the inductance of the coil
has reduced to zero acting more like a short circuit and effectively removing it from the
circuit.

Therefore the current flowing through the coil is limited only by the resistive element in
Ohms of the coils windings. A graphical representation of the current growth representing the
voltage/time characteristics of the circuit can be presented as.

Transient Curves for an LR Series Circuit

Since the voltage drop across the resistor, VR is equal to IxR (Ohms Law), it will have the
same exponential growth and shape as the current. However, the voltage drop across the
inductor, VL will have a value equal to: Ve(-Rt/L). Then the voltage across the inductor, VL
will have an initial value equal to the battery voltage at time t = 0 or when the switch is first
closed and then decays exponentially to zero as represented in the above curves.

The time required for the current flowing in the LR series circuit to reach its maximum steady
state value is equivalent to about 5 time constants or 5. This time constant , is measured by
= L/R, in seconds, were R is the value of the resistor in ohms and L is the value of the
inductor in Henries. This then forms the basis of an RL charging circuit were 5 can also be
thought of as 5 x L/R or the transient time of the circuit.

The transient time of any inductive circuit is determined by the relationship between the
inductance and the resistance. For example, for a fixed value resistance the larger the
inductance the slower will be the transient time and therefore a longer time constant for the
LR series circuit. Likewise, for a fixed value inductance the smaller the resistance value the
longer the transient time.

However, for a fixed value inductance, by increasing the resistance value the transient time
and therefore the time constant of the circuit becomes shorter. This is because as the
resistance increases the circuit becomes more and more resistive as the value of the
inductance becomes negligible compared to the resistance. If the value of the resistance is
increased sufficiently large compared to the inductance the transient time would effectively
be reduced to almost zero.

LR Series Circuit Example No1

A coil which has an inductance of 40mH and a resistance of 2s is connected together to

form a LR series circuit. If they are connected to a 20V DC supply.

a). What will be the final steady state value of the current.

b) What will be the time constant of the RL series circuit.

c) What will be the transient time of the RL series circuit.

c) What will be the value of the induced emf after 10mS.

d) What will be the value of the circuit current one time constant after the switch is closed.
The Time Constant, of the circuit was calculated in question b) as being 20mS. Then the
circuit current at this time is given as:

You may have noticed that the answer for question (d) which gives a value of 6.32 Amps at
one time constant, is equal to 63.2% of the final steady state current value of 10 Amps we
calculated in question (a). This value of 63.2% or 0.632 x IMAX also corresponds with the
transient curves shown above.

Power in a LR Series Circuit

Then from above, the power in a LR series circuit is given as:

The instantaneous rate at which the voltage source delivers power to the circuit is given as:

The instantaneous rate at which power is dissipated by the resistor in the form of heat is given
as:

The rate at which energy is stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic potential energy is
given as:
Then we can find the total power in a RL series circuit by multiplying by i and is therefore:

Where the first I2R term represents the power dissipated by the resistor in heat, and the
second term represents the power absorbed by the inductor, its magnetic energy.