Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
C. G. ENKE the output accuracy. Also, many digi- ( 2 ) As the data proceed through the
tized measurement systems, while pro- instrument, a change in the character-
Department of Chemistry,
Michigan State University, viding excellent accuracy and conve- istic or property used to represent the
E. Lansing, Mich. 48823 nience, are unnecessarily complicated. measured data is called a data domain
conversion.
be-
CIESTIFIC I S S T R U M E N T A T I O N IS Data Domains Concepts (3) All electronic measurement sys-
ing revolutionized by the availabil- tems can be described as a sequence
ity of an ever-increasing array of elec- The convenience and power of the of two or more data domain converters,
tronic devices which increase measure- amazing new electronic devices are each of which can be analyzed sepa-
ment speed, accuracy, and convenience irresistible t o almost all scientists, but rately.
while decrensing instrument size and few are in a position to understand ( 4 ) llethods of using electrical sig-
power requirements. Integrated cir- these new tools in detail. A4means of nals to represent measurement data
cuits and hybrid circuits have made applying new devices efficiently and in11 into three major categories or do-
many measurement techniques, n-hich effectively, which requires only an un- mains: analog, time, and digital.
were previously only theoretically possi- derstanding of the liasic measurement Since there are only three data do-
ble, a reality. The continual decrease in concepts, is needed for most. The datn mains for electrical signals, the elec-
the cost of digital and linear circuits has domains concepts described here are tronic sections of complex measure-
made many sophisticated devices such very useful in analyzing, describing, ment systems can be easily analyzed
as frequency meters, digital pH meters, modifying, and designing analog, digi- (or designed) as combinations of only
signal averngers, and minicomputers tal, :ind analogldigital measurement a few basic interdomain converters.
practical for most laboratories. As systems and devices and in assessing =Ilso the hundreds of data handling
electronic technology continues to ad- and minimizing the sources of measure- devices available can be shown to be
vance, we can expect more and more of ment errors ( 1 ) . I n addition, a much simply various methods of accomplish-
the sampling, control, and dnta analy- better understanding of the instru- ing the basic interdomain conversions.
,?is of scientific measurements to be per- mental data handling process is gained
formed b>-the instrument itself. as :I result of the study and application
Electronics-Aided Measurement
Digitnl instrumcntation has been the of the data domains concept. The first,
.scene of milch development and interest four concepts of datn domains analysis In an electronics-aided measurement,
liecause of its inherent accuracy capa- are given below: the quantity to be measured is con-
hilit!., convenient numerical output, and (1) Measurement data are repre- verted into an electrical signal and then
potential digital computer compati- sented in an instrument a t any instant amplified or otherwise modified to op-
bility. However, just digitizing a n by n physical quantity, n chemical erate a device which visually displays
instrument does not insure these ad- quantity, or some property of an elec- the value of the measured quantity.
vnnt:iges. There are literally hundreds trical signal. The characteristics or This process is illustrated for a typical
of datn handling and digitizing devices properties used to represent the mea- case in the block diagram of Figure 1.
available today and an unwise com- surement data can be categorized in An input transducer such as a photo-
bination of units can actually degrade groups called data domains. detector, thermistor, glass p H electrode,
H
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CHEMICAL
QUANTITY
TRANSDUCER
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DA7.A-
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or strain gage is used to convert the vantages of various digitizing or inter- electronic logic circuits of the type de-
quantity t o be measured int,o a n elec- facing possibilities. veloped for digital computers. As will
trical signal. The current or voltage Digital dfeasurement. -4 common be s h o m later, it is common for mea-
amplitude of this signal is related in form of digital measurement system is surement data to be represented by a
some known way to the quant,ity to be shown in block form in Figure 2. At binary-level electronic signal and still
measured. The electrical signal from some point after the measurement data not be digitized or numerical. There-
the input transducer is then modified h a w been converted into electrical fore, in this paper, a digital instru-
by an electronic circuit to make it suit- amplitiides, an analog-to-digital con- ment will be defined as one that, uses
able to operate a readout, device. The verter is wed (a). This is an elec- :I digital electronic signal to represent
electronic circuit is most frequently an tronic circuit which converts an analog the measurement data somewhere
amplifier with the appropriate adjust,- electronic signal (where the measure- within the instrument. The analysis
able parameters (zero, standardizat,ion, ment data are reprcscnted by the signal :ind design of digital measurement sys-
position, etc.) and sometimes with auto- amplitude) to n digital electronic sig- tems necessarily involves an under-
matic compensation for nonlinearities, nal (n-liicli represents integer numbers standing of the ways electrical signals
temperature variation, etc. of the trans- iinainbiguously by coded binary-level can represent, data and how conversions
ducer. The output is a readout device signal.). If the digitization n-as pcr- from one form to another are accom-
from which a number can be obtained, formed to take advantage of the great plished.
generally by observing the position of accuracy, power, and versatility of digi-
R marker against a numbered scale. tal data processing, that will be done Electronic Data Domains
Using the data domains concepts, the next. Finnlly, the numerical binary-
basic electronic measurement of Figure level signal is decoded into a number There are only three basic ways by
1 is described as follo~vs: The measure- nhich is diaplnyed, printed, andl or which measurement data are repre-
ment data exist first as the physical piinched. sented by an electrical signal: Analog,
or chemical quantity to be measured. Becawe so many :idvantages are symbolized E,4, in which the amplitude
At the output of the input, transducer, claimed for digital techniques, many of the signal current or voltage is re-
the measurement data are represented techniques have claimed to be digital. Inted to the data; time, in which
by an electrical signal and are thus in I n fact, any t j y e of device which has the time relationsliip hetn-een signal-
one of the three electrical domains. din1 settings or outputs which are levcl changes is related to the measure-
The input transdueer is thus a device niimerals in a roTv is likely t o be called ment data: and digital, E,, in which
which converts quantities or translates digital. By that, standnrd a decade :in integer number is represented by
information from a physical or chemical resistancc bos is a digital instrument. binary-level signals. The characteristic
domain into an electrical domain. The Since the end result of any measure- signals in each of these domains and
measurement data remain in an elec- ment is a number, all instruments cxiinple. of their use are described in
trical domain through the electrical sig- could be callrd digital, biit the meaning this section.
nal modifier. However, the output de- of the word in t h a t wnse becomes EA4.The measurement, data
dA~in/ogt
vice converts the electrical signal into trivi:il, Some confine the iise of the in this domain are represented by the
some readable form such as the rela- word< digital instrument to those mngnitiidc of a voltnge or a current.
tive positions of a marker and a scale- instruments which contain linary-level The analog domain signal is continu-
i.e., a nonelectrical domain. Thus the oiisly variable in amplitude. A i l ~ othe
,
entire measurement can be described in analog :implitude can be measured con-
terms of conversions b e h e e n domains tinuousl!- with time or at any instant in
and modifications within domains. timc. Most input transducers used to-
I n the basic electronic measurement, t h y convert the rnenm-ement dnt:i from
a t least two converters are required; thc phypical and chemical domains ( P )
one to transfer into an electrical do- to the E.t domain. Esamples of P-to-
main and one to transfer out. The E , converters are: photodetectors
characteristics of each interdomain con- nliich convert, light intensity to nn elec-
verter and each signal modifier affect trical ciirrent, a thermistor bridge
the quality of the measurement. To which converts temperature differcnce
take advantage of special input trans- to :in electrical potential, n cornbina-
ducers, particular readouts, and avail- tion p H rlcctrodc which converts solii-
able signal processing techniques, an tion ncidity into an electricnl potentid,
instrument may involve many data and a flame ionization detector which
domain conversions and signal modi- convrrts the concentration of ioniznble
fiers. The data domains concept allows moleciilw in n gas into an electrical
ench step to be blocked out and ana- current. Figure 3 shows some typical
lyzed separately. This will be shown -TME, MVELENGT$ FELD SRENGT? E X : -C
amplitude. The variations in the sig- signal t o any other domain is one
nal amplitude may be plotted against period or one pulse width.
time, wavelength, magnet'ic field Digital, E,. I n the digital domain,
strength, temperature, or other experi- the measurement dat,a are contained
mental parameters as shown in Figure in a %level signal (HI/LO, 1 / U , etc.)
3. From such plots, addit'ional infor- wliicli is coded to represent a specific
mation can often be obt,ained from a integer (or character) (3). The digital
correlation of amplitudes measured a t signal may be a coded series of pulses
different times. Such information in one channel (serial form) or a coded
viould include simple observations like set of signals on simultaneous multiple
peak height, peak position, number of channels (parallel form). Represen-
peaks, or more complex correlations tative digital signal waveforms are
such as peak area, peak separation, TIME L shown in Figure 5. The count' serial
signal averaging, and Fourier trans- Figure 4. Time (Eat)domain signals waveform ( a ) is a series of pulses with
formation. The techniques of correlat- a clearly defined beginning and end.
ing data taken s t different times must Tlie number represented is the number
be distinguished from the techniques nificant tinie relationship is measured. of pulses in the series. The count serial
of converting t,he data taken at each Tliis is accomplished by a comparator waveform of Figure 5 might represent,
instant, into a usable form. I t is the or Scjlmitt trigger circuit, Examples for instance, the number of photons
latter problem that this paper is pri- of converters producing EAt domain of n particular energy detected dur-
marily concerned with. The former signals from physical domain quantities ing n singlc spark excitation. The
problem is handled b y datn processing are: a crystal oscillator that produces count serial form is simple but not
techniques, once the required instmi- a temperature-dependent. frequency be- very efficient. T o provide a resolution
taneous data points have been con- cause of the temperature characteristics of one part per thousand, the time re-
verted t o a useful form and stored. of the quartz crystal, an oscillator quired for at least one thousand pulses
Signals in the EB domain are sus- which lias an output frequency de- t o occur must, be allowed for each
ceptible to electrical noise sources con- pendent upon the value of the capaci- series of piilscs.
tained within or induced upon the cir- tance used in the oscillator circuit, and The most efficient serial digital signal
cuits and connections. The resulting the Geiger tube ivhich converts level is tlie binary-coded serial signal 21iown
signal amplitude a t any instant is the of radioactivity to a pulsc repetition in Figure 5b. I n this signal, each pulse
sum of t h e data signals and the noise mte. An example of a Ea-to-E,t do- timc in tlic series represents a different
-ignals. main converter is a voltage-controlled- hit poqition in a binary number. The
T h e , E A t . I n this domain, the mea- oscillator or voltage-to-frequency con- appcnrnnce of a pulse at a time position
siirement data are contained in the verter which provides an output fre- indicates a 1 ; tlie absence of a pulse,
time relationship of signal variations, quency related to an input voltage. a 0. The data are not represented by
not the amplitude of the variations. The E S t domain signal, like the E , t h c exact time of the pulse as in the
Tj.pical EAt domain signals are shoivn domain signal, is continuously variable EAt domain, but by the signal logic
in Figiire 4. Tlie most common E A t since the frequency or pulse width can Icvcl prc5cnt within a given time range.
dom:iin signnls represent, the data R S be varied infinitesimally. However, the The hinary number represented by the
the frequency of a periodic waveform EAt signal variable cannot be measured n-awform rho!!-n is 101101011 which is
( a ) , the time duration of a pnlse ( b ) , continuously with time or at any in- dccim:il 363. ,4 series of n pulse times
or 3.q the time or average rate of stant in time. The minimum time re- resolution of one part in 2". Thus
11111scs ( c ) . T h e arc logic-h-el sig- quired for conversion of an EAt domain a 10-bit Perk. has a resolution of one
nals--i.e., their signal amplitude is
either in tlic HI or 1 logic-level region
or thc LO or 0 logic-level region. The
data are contained in the time relation-
ship between the logic-level transitions.
The greater the slope ( d E / d t ) of the
signa 1 through the logic-level threshold
region, the more precisely the transi- 7 B/NARY- COD?DS E Q / !
tion time can be defined. Because the
data in an E,, domain signal are less (6) ??=/8/
I I '
amplitude-dependent than in an E A
domain signal, thry are less affected by
electrical noise sources. A common ex-
ample of this is the FM radio signal
- 5/NA<%COD&D UFC/#AL
(EA?domain) vs. the more noise sus- (CI I ' SERIAL Z = 697
ceptible -411 radio signal ( E A domain).
The greater the difference between the
average 0 or 1 signal-level ampli-
tude and the logic-level threshold, the
less susceptible the signal will be to
noise-induced error. I n these respects, n = 2/0
the signal shown in Figure 4b is better
than those of Figures 4a and 4c. The 04' ASCII CffAQACTEq Q
logic-level transitions of signals like
Figures 4a and 4c are generally sharp-
128 64 32 16 48 4 2 1
ened to those like 4b before the sjg- Figure 5 . Serial and parallel digital signals
DOMAIN
CONVRSlOU
7/ME
Figure 10. Crystal oscillator temperature measurement Figure 11. Successive domain conversions
Branches:
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Mass.
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Conn.
. Elk Grove Village
111.
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Calif.
Philadelphia
Penna.
Silver Spring
Md.
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N. Y.
Circle No. 164 on Readers' Service Card
0
and t o provide a way to organize these
m R NUCLEAR-CWICAOO CORP. devices into complete measurement sys-
STRUMENS V I
A SUBSlOlARY OF Q 0 & CO
tems. It is natural and useful t o clas-
sify converter devices according to the
1327 SIXTEENTH STREET, FORT LEE, NEW JERSEY, OIOH
domains which the device converts from
Cirri8 No. 23 on Readers SOrViCO Card
ARGON I
Cryogenic Chromatography
-
hsyand Effective
With the 7620 GCs cryogenic module, sub-ambient
oven temperature control is as easy and effective as
high-temperature control has been for years.
Its easy because the cryogenic module controls oven
temperature continuously down to -70C and holds it
within 0.1C, for isothermal or programmed operation.
Itssynchronized with programmer operation: a blinking
light tells you when the oven has cooled to the starting
temperature, whether cryogenic or near ambient. It
operates either with economical liquid CO, down to
-70C or with compressed air in the trans-ambient
range. And its a standard option: you can order it in-
stalled on a new 7620 or install it yourself later, with
relative ease, without modification to the programmer.
The most important characteristic of the 7620s cryo-
genic module is its effectiveness. As evidence, we show
the chromatogram of a complete separation of Argon
from Oxygen in a sample of air, performed in 8 minutes
on a 6-foot column (Molecular Sieve 5A) in a 7620 oven
operated isothermally at -30C. Any GC that can do
this is clearly performing well in the sub-ambient region.
Still more evidence of the 7620s precision at sub-
ambient temperatures is presented in Bulletin 7620,
yours on request. Prices start at $5150 for a dual TC
detector instrument; the cryogenic option adds $350.
Hewlett-Packard, Route 41, Avondale, Pa. 19311. In
Europe: 1217 Meyrin-Geneva, Switzerland.
.
.
--
_ -_
.--
__-
__ -
HEWLETT PACKARD
A N A LYTl C A L I N S T R U M E NTS
Circle No. 84 on Readers Service Card
4)OCI
path which has the fewest conversions
ahould also be apparent from tracing
the possible routes shown in Figure 16.
However, the shortest path is not al-
ways the path of choice. For example,
t o go from scale position to parallel
digital, the direct path is 15. However,
absolute shaft rotation encoders with a
high accuracy and ruggedness require-
ment could cost much more than the
devices needed to take route 19-7-12.
Summary