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Mechanical Testing 01B

An Introduction of mechanical Testing
Pictorial tutorial

Part 2Charpy Impact Testing

(Descriptive approach)

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Mechanical testing - notched bar or impact testing

Notched bar or impact testing. Part I

Before looking at impact testing let us first define what is meant by 'toughness' since the impact test is only
one method by which this material property is measured.

Toughness is, broadly, a measure of the amount of energy required to cause an item - a test piece or a bridge
or a pressure vessel - to fracture and fail. The more energy that is required then the tougher the material.

The area beneath a stress/strain curve produced from a tensile test is a measure of the toughness of the test
piece under slow loading conditions. However, in the context of an impact test we are looking at notch
toughness, a measure of the metal's resistance to brittle or fast fracture in the presence of a flaw or notch and
fast loading conditions.

It was during World War II that attention was focused on this property of 'notch toughness' due to the brittle
fracture of all-welded Liberty ships, then being built in the USA. From this work the science of fracture
toughness developed and gave rise to a range of tests used to characterise 'notch toughness' of which the
Charpy-V test described in this article is one.

There are two main forms of impact test, the Izod and the Charpy test.

Both involve striking a standard specimen with a controlled weight pendulum traveling at a set speed. The
amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the test piece is measured and this gives an indication of the notch
toughness of the test material.

These tests show that metals can be classified as being either 'brittle' or 'ductile'. A brittle metal will absorb a
small amount of energy when impact tested, a tough ductile metal a large amount of energy.

It should be emphasised that these tests are qualitative, the results can only be compared with each other or
with a requirement in a specification - they cannot be used to calculate the fracture toughness of a weld or
parent metal. Tests that can be used in this way will be covered in future Job Knowledge articles. The Izod test
is rarely used these days for weld testing having been replaced by the Charpy test and will not be discussed
further in this article.
The test is qualitative.
The results can not be used to calculate the fracture toughness of materail.

The Charpy specimen may be used with one of three different types of notch, a 'keyhole', a 'U' and a 'V'. The
keyhole and U-notch are used for the testing of brittle materials such as cast iron and for the testing of plastics.
The V-notch specimen is the specimen of choice for weld testing and is the one discussed here.

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The standard Charpy-V specimen, illustrated in Fig.1. Is 55mm long, 10mm square and has a 2mm deep notch
with a tip radius of 0.25mm machined on one face.

Fig.1. Standard Charpy-V notch specimen

To carry out the test the standard specimen is supported at its two ends on an anvil and struck on the opposite
face to the notch by a pendulum as shown in Fig.2. The specimen is fractured and the pendulum swings
through, the height of the swing being a measure of the amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen.
Conventionally three specimens are tested at any one temperature, see Fig.3, and the results averaged.

Fig.2. Charpy testing machine

Fig.3. Schematic Charpy-V energy and % age crystallinity

curves

Increase the temperature increase the absorbed energy.

Increase the temperature decrease the % of crystallinity.
There is a transition temperature range during which there a distinct change from ductile to brittle or vise versa.

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A characteristic of carbon and low alloy steels is that they exhibit a change
in fracture behaviour as the temperature falls with the failure mode
changing from ductile to brittle. This is a characteristic of BCC, Body center
cubic ferritic structure.

If impact testing is carried out over a range of temperatures the results of

energy absorbed versus temperature can be plotted to give the 'S' curve
illustrated in Fig.3.

This shows that the fracture of these types of steels changes from being
ductile on the upper shelf to brittle on the lower shelf as the temperature
falls, passing through a transition region where the fracture will be mixed.

Fig.3a.The fracture surface of this Charpy impact

specimen show that the fracture mode was a mixture of
ductile (dull gray) and brittle (shiny, salt and peppery
appearance).

Many specifications talk of a transition temperature, a

temperature at which the fracture behaviour changes
from ductile to brittle. This temperature is often
determined by selecting, quite arbitrarily, the
temperature at which the metal achieves an impact
value of 27 Joules - see, for example the impact test
requirements of EN 10028 Part 2 Steel for Pressure
Purposes.

What the curve shows is that a ductile fracture absorbs

a greater amount of energy than a brittle fracture in
the same material. Knowing the temperature at which
the fracture behaviour changes is therefore of crucial
importance when the service temperature of a
structure is considered - ideally in service a structure
should operate at upper shelf temperatures.

The shape of the S curve and the positions of the

upper and lower shelves are all affected by
composition, heat treatment condition, whether or not
the steel has been welded, welding heat input, welding
consumable and a number of additional factors. All the
factors must be controlled if good notch toughness is
required. This means that close control of the welding
parameters is essential if impact testing is a
specification requirement.

Among many others, the factors that may affect Charpy impact values are:
Composition.
Heat treatment conditions.
Welding.
Welding consumables.
Interpass temperature.
Heat input.
Welding processes.
Works done on samples.
Service history.

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Austenitic stainless steels, nickel and aluminium alloys FCC, Face center
cubic structure do not show this change in fracture behaviour, the fracture
remaining ductile even to very low temperatures. This is one reason why
these types of alloys are used in cryogenic applications.

In addition to the impact energy there are two further features that can be
measured and may be found as a requirement in some specifications. These
are percentage crystallinity and lateral expansion.

Assessment of Charpy notch toughness can be expessed in following ways:

Impact energy
% crstallinity.
% lateral expansion.
Determination of transition temperature.
The appearance of a fracture surface gives information about the type of fracture that has occurred - a brittle
fracture is bright and crystalline, a ductile fracture is dull and fibrous.

Percentage crystallinity is therefore a measure of the amount of brittle fracture, determined by making a
judgement of the amount of crystalline or brittle fracture on the surface of the broken specimen.

Lateral expansion is a measure of the ductility of the specimen. When a ductile metal is broken the test piece
deforms before breaking, a pair of 'ears' being squeezed out on the side of the compression face of the
specimen, as illustrated in Fig 4. The amount by which the specimen deforms is measured and expressed as
millimeters of lateral expansion. ASME B31.3 for example requires a lateral expansion of 0.38mm for bolting
materials and steels with a UTS exceeding 656N/mm 2, rather than specifying an impact value.

Fig.4 Lateral expansion

The next article in this series will look at the testing of welds, how the impact strength can be affected by
composition and microstructure and some of its limitations and disadvantages.

The previous article looked at the method of Charpy-V impact testing and the results that can be determined
from carrying out a test. This next part looks at the impact testing of welds and some of the factors that affect
the transition temperature such as composition and microstructure. Within such a short article, however, it will
only be possible to talk in the most general of terms.

Welding can have a profound effect on the properties of the parent metal and there may be many options on
process selection, welding parameters and consumable choice that will affect impact strength.

Charpy Impact: Full size 10mm x 10mm samples. Sample on left showing a
brittle fracture surface with 8 ft-lbs of energy, < 10% Shear, 0.1mm lateral
expansion.

Sample on right showing a ductile fracture surface with 290 ft-lbs of energy,
100% Shear, 2.03mm lateral expansion.

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Notched bar or impact testing. Part II

Many application standards therefore require impact testing to be carried out on the parent metal, the weld
metal and in the heat affected zone as illustrated in Fig.1 which is taken from BS PD 5500 Annex D. The
standards generally specify a minimum impact energy to be achieved at the minimum design temperature and
to identify from where the specimens are to be taken. This is done in order to quantify the impact energy of
the different microstructures in the weld metal and the HAZs to ensure that, as far as possible, the equipment
will be operating at upper shelf temperatures where brittle fracture is not a risk.

Fig.1. PD5500 App D. location of Charpy

specimens in weld HAZ

These application standards may be supplemented by client specifications that impose additional and more
stringent testing requirements, as shown in Fig.2 taken from an oil industry specification for offshore structures.

Fig.2. Offshore client requirements

The positioning of the specimens within a weld is extremely important both in terms of the specimen location
and the notch orientation. A specimen positioned across the width of a multi-pass arc weld will probably include
more than one weld pass and its associated HAZs. Quite a small movement in the position of the notch can
therefore have a significant effect on the impact values recorded during a test. Positioning a notch precisely
down the centre line of a single pass of a submerged arc weld can give extremely low impact values!

Testing the heat affected zone also has problems of notch position since in a carbon or low alloy steel there will
be a range of microstructures from the fusion line to the unaffected parent metal. Many welds also use a 'V'
preparation as illustrated above and this, coupled with the narrow HAZ, means that a single notch may sample
all of these structures. If the impact properties of specific areas in the HAZ need to be determined then a 'K' or
single bevel preparation may be used.

The standard specimen is 10mm x 10mm square - when a weld joint is thicker than 10mm the machining of a
standard size specimen is possible. When the thickness is less than this and impact testing is required it
becomes necessary to use sub-size specimens.

Many specifications permit the use of 10mm x 7.5mm, 5mm and 2.5mm thickness (notch length) specimens.
There is not a simple relationship between a 10mm x 10mm specimen and the sub-size specimens - a 10mm x
5mm specimen does not have half the notch toughness of the full size test piece. As the thickness decreases
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the transition temperature also decreases, as does the upper shelf value, illustrated in Fig.3 and this is
recognised in the application standards.

Fig.3. Effect of size on transition

temperature and upper shelf
values

Size decrease transitional temperature decrease.

Size decrease impact energy decrease although not proportionally.

In a carbon or low alloy steel the lowest impact values are generally to be found close to the fusion line where
grain growth has taken place.

Coarse grains generally have low notch toughness, one reason why heat input needs to be controlled to low
levels if high notch toughness is required.

For example, EN ISO 15614 Pt. 1 requires Charpy-V specimens to be taken from the high heat input area of a
procedure qualification test piece and places limits on any increase in heat input. Certain steels may also have
an area some distance from the fusion line that may be embrittled so some specifications require impact tests
at a distance of 5mm from the fusion line.

Charpy-V tests carried out on rolled products show that there is a difference in impact values if the specimens
are taken parallel or transverse to the rolling direction. Specimens taken parallel to the rolling direction test the
metal across the 'grain' of the steel and have higher notch toughness than the transverse specimens - one
reason why pressure vessel plates are rolled into cylinders with the rolling direction oriented in the hoop
direction.
Impact of specimen at rolling (parallel) direction has higher value than transverse direction.
In a carbon or low alloy steel the element that causes the largest change in notch toughness is carbon with the
transition temperature being raised by around 14C for every 0.1% increase in carbon content.

An example of how this can affect properties is the root pass of a single sided weld. This often has lower notch
toughness than the bulk of the weld as it has a larger amount of parent metal melted into it - most parent
metals have higher carbon content than the filler metal and the root pass therefore has a higher carbon
content than the bulk of the weld.

Sulphur and phosphorus are two other elements that both reduce notch toughness, one reason why steel
producers have been working hard to reduce these elements to as low a level as possible. It is not uncommon
for a good quality modern steel to have a sulphur content less than 0.005%.

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Of the beneficial elements, manganese and nickel are possibly the two most significant, the nickel alloy steels
forming a family of cryogenic steels with the 9% nickel steel being capable of use at temperatures down to -
196C. Aluminium is also beneficial at around 0.02% where it has the optimum effect in providing a fine grain
size.

Element that affect charpy impact energy:

Negative effect: Carbon, Sulphur and phosphorous

Positive effects: Nickel, Manganese, Nitrogen and Aluminium.

Lastly, let us have a brief look at some of the other factors that can affect the impact values. These are
concerned with the quality of the specimen and how the test is conducted.

It goes without saying that the specimens must be accurately machined, the shape of the tip of the notch
being the most important feature. A blunted milling cutter or broach will give a rounded notch tip and this in
turn will give a false, high impact value. Checking the tip radius on a shadowgraph is one simple way of
ensuring the correct tip shape. Correct positioning of the specimen on the anvil is most important and this can
be done using a specially designed former.

The last point concerns the testing of specimens at temperatures other than at room temperature. When
testing at sub-zero temperatures the length of time taken to remove the specimen from the cooling bath,
position it on the anvil and test it is most important. EN875 requires this to be done within five seconds
otherwise the test piece temperature will rise making the test invalid - referring back to the impact energy vs
temperature curve in the previous article will show why.

Relevant Specifications

BS 131 Part 4 Calibration of Impact Testing Machines for metals.

BS 131 Part 5 Determination of Crystallinity
BS 131 Part 6 Method for Precision Determination of Charpy-V Impact Energy
BS 131 Part 7 Specification for Verification of Precision Test Machines
EN 875 Destructive Tests on Welds in Metallic Materials - Impact Tests
EN 10045 Part 1 Test Method
EN 10045 Part 2 Verification of Impact Testing Machines
ASTM E23-O2A Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials.

Toughness is an expression of measurement of energy to fracture a specimen.

Tensile or yield is also an expression of toughness, toughness at slow loading condition of stress. Notch
toughness in the context of impact testing is the measurement of energy requiring to fracture a specimen with a
flaw at fast loading.

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Ductile vs. Brittle BehaviorBody-centered-cubic or ferritic

alloys exhibit a significant transition in behavior when impact
tested over a range of temperatures. At temperatures above
transition, impact specimens fracture by a ductile (usually
microvoid coalescence) mechanism, absorbing relatively
large amounts of energy. At lower temperatures, they
fracture in a brittle (usually cleavage) manner absorbing less
energy. Within the transition range, the fracture will
generally
be a mixture of areas of ductile fracture and brittle fracture.
The temperature range of the transition from one type
of behavior to the other varies according to the material being tested. This transition behavior may be defined in
various ways for specification purposes.
The specification may require a minimum test result for absorbed energy, fracture appearance, lateral expansion,
or a combination thereof, at a specified test temperature.

The specification may require the determination of

the transition temperature at which either the absorbed
energy or fracture appearance attains a specified level
when testing is performed over a range of temperatures.

Fracture Mechanisms

A fracture surface should be treated as a record of the history of a component failure. Detailed within the fracture
surface is evidence of loading history, environmental conditions and material quality.1 For the purposes of this
resource, fracture surfaces are classified as brittle, ductile and fatigue although some specimens may clearly fit
into a number of fracture categories. For example a fatigue failure fracture surface may exhibit a ductile final
fracture region. This will be taken into account and the fracture image will appear in all of the categories where it
is relevant.

Brittle Fracture

Brittle fractures have no plastic deformation and are usually characterised by a lack of necking with smooth/shiny
facets (as shown below), an appearance associated with fast crack growth.4

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SEM image of brittle fracture in plain carbon steel

A brittle failure mode such as cleavage or intergranular (fracture along the grain boundaries) is seen. On a
macroscopic level, chevron or radial markings may be observed as shown below.

Radiating Ridge Fracture Surface (Callister, W.D., page 186)

Ductile Fracture

Conversely ductile fractures can be characterised by necking of the material due to plastic deformation. A
fibrous/rough and dull fracture surface can be observed associated with slow crack growth.

Plastic deformation is produced by a ductile failure mode such as microvoid coalescence leading to dimple rupture
which can be seen below. Failure at the edges of the sample occurs at 45 to the loading direction due to the
maximum shear stress being at 45 to the loading stress.

SEM image of ductile fracture in plain carbon steel

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Ductile tensile failure begins with uniform plastic deformation leading to localised microvoid coalescence and then
dimple rupture in the necked region which experiences a tri-axial stress state on formation of the neck. Dimple
rupture leaves pits and holes on the surface structure.

Factors affecting the failure mode are:

Material Microstructure.

Temperature.

Strain Rate.

Environment (leading to corrosion).

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Extract from ASTM 370 A5: A5. NOTES ON SIGNIFICANCE OF NOTCHED-BAR IMPACT TESTING
A5.1 Notch Behavior
A5.1.1 The Charpy and Izod type tests bring out notch
behavior (brittleness versus ductility) by applying a single
overload of stress. The energy values determined are
quantitative comparisons on a selected specimen but cannot
be converted into energy values that would serve for
engineering design calculations. The notch behavior indicated
in an individual test applies only to the specimen size, notch
geometry, and testing conditions involved and cannot be
generalized to other sizes of specimens and conditions.
A5.1.2 The notch behavior of the face-centered cubic metals
and alloys, a large group of nonferrous materials and the
austenitic steels can be judged from their common tensile
properties. If they are brittle in tension they will be brittle
when notched, while if they are ductile in tension, they will
be ductile when notched, except for unusually sharp or deep
notches (much more severe than the standard Charpy or Izod
specimens).
Even low temperatures do not alter this characteristic of these
materials. In contrast, the behavior of the ferritic steels under
notch conditions cannot be predicted from their properties as
revealed by the tension test. For the study of these materials
the Charpy and Izod type tests are accordingly very useful.
Some metals that display normal ductility in the tension test
may nevertheless break in brittle fashion when tested or when
used in the notched condition.
Notched conditions include restraints to deformation in
directions perpendicular to the major stress, or multiaxial
stresses, and stress concentrations. It is in this field that the
Charpy and Izod tests prove useful for determining the
suceptibility of a steel to notchbrittle behavior though they
cannot be directly used to appraise the serviceability of a
structure.
A5.1.3 The testing machine itself must be sufficiently rigid
or tests on high-strength low-energy materials will result in
excessive elastic energy losses either upward through the
pendulum shaft or downward through the base of the
machine.
If the anvil supports, the pendulum striking edge, or the
machine foundation bolts are not securely fastened, tests on
ductile materials in the range of 80 ftlbf (108 J) may actually
indicate values in excess of 90 to 100 ftlbf (122 to 136 J).
A5.2 Notch Effect
A5.2.1 The notch results in a combination of multiaxial
stresses associated with restraints to deformation in directions
perpendicular to the major stress, and a stress concentration at
the base of the notch. A severely notched condition is
generally not desirable, and it becomes of real concern in
those cases in which it initiates a sudden and complete failure
of the brittle type. Some metals can be deformed in a ductile
manner even down to the low temperatures of liquid air,
while others may crack.
This difference in behavior can be best understood by
considering the cohesive strength of a material (or the
property that holds it together) and its relation to the yield
point. In cases of brittle fracture, the cohesive strength is
exceeded before significant plastic deformation occurs and
the fracture appears crystalline. In cases of the ductile or
shear type of failure, considerable deformation precedes the
final fracture and the broken surface appears fibrous instead
of crystalline. In intermediate cases the fracture comes after a
moderate amount of deformation and is part crystalline and
part fibrous in appearance.
A5.2.2 When a notched bar is loaded, there is a normal
stress across the base of the notch which tends to initiate
fracture. The property that keeps it from cleaving, or holds it
together, is the cohesive strength. The bar fractures when
the normal stress exceeds the cohesive strength. When this
occurs without the bar deforming it is the condition for brittle
fracture.
A5.2.3 In testing, though not in service because of side
effects, it happens more commonly that plastic deformation
precedes fracture. In addition to the normal stress, the applied
load also sets up shear stresses which are about 45 to the
normal stress. The elastic behavior terminates as soon as the
shear stress exceeds the shear strength of the material and
deformation or plastic yielding sets in. This is the condition
for ductile failure.
A5.2.4 This behavior, whether brittle or ductile, depends on
whether the normal stress exceeds the cohesive strength
before the shear stress exceeds the shear strength. Several
important facts of notch behavior follow from this. If the
notch is made sharper or more drastic, the normal stress at the
root of the notch will be increased in relation to the shear
stress and the bar will be more prone to brittle fracture (see
Table A5.1). Also, as the speed of deformation increases, the
shear strength increases and the likelihood of brittle fracture
increases.
On the other hand, by raising the temperature, leaving the
notch and the speed of deformation the same, the shear
strength is lowered and ductile behavior is promoted, leading
to shear failure.
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A5.2.5 Variations in notch dimensions will seriously affect
the results of the tests. Tests on E 4340 steel specimens9 have
shown the effect of dimensional variations on Charpy results
(see Table A5.1).
A5.3 Size Effect
A5.3.1 Increasing either the width or the depth of the
specimen tends to increase the volume of metal subject to
distortion, and by this factor tends to increase the energy
absorption when breaking the specimen. However, any
increase in size, particularly in width, also tends to increase
the degree of restraint and by tending to induce brittle
fracture, may decrease the amount of energy absorbed. Where
a standard-size specimen is on the verge of brittle fracture,
this is particularly true, and a double-width specimen may
actually require less energy for rupture than one of standard
width.
A5.3.2 In studies of such effects where the size of the
material precludes the use of the standard specimen, as for
example when the material is 14-in. plate, subsize specimens
are necessarily used. Such specimens (see Fig. 6 of Test
Methods E 23) are based on the Type A specimen of Fig. 4 of
Test Methods E 23. A5.3.3 General correlation between the
energy values obtained with specimens of different size or
shape is not feasible, but limited correlations may be
established for specification purposes on the basis of special
studies of particular materials and particular specimens.
On the other hand, in a study of the relative effect of process
variations, evaluation by use of some arbitrarily selected
specimen with some chosen notch will in most instances
place the methods in their proper order.
A5.4 Effects of Testing Conditions
A5.4.1 The testing conditions also affect the notch behavior.
So pronounced is the effect of temperature on the behavior of
steel when notched that comparisons are frequently made by
examining specimen fractures and by plotting energy value
and fracture appearance versus temperature from tests of
notched bars at a series of temperatures. When the test
temperature has been carried low enough to start cleavage
fracture, there may be an extremely sharp drop in impact
value or there may be a relatively gradual falling off toward
the lower temperatures.
This drop in energy value starts when a specimen begins to
exhibit some crystalline appearance in the fracture. The
transition temperature at which this embrittling effect takes
place varies considerably with the size of the part or test
specimen and with the notch geometry.
A5.4.2 Some of the many definitions of transition
temperature currently being used are: (1) the lowest
temperature at which the specimen exhibits 100 % fibrous
fracture, ( 2) the temperature where the fracture shows a 50 %
crystalline and a 50 % fibrous appearance, (3) the emperature
corresponding to the energy value 50 % of the difference
between values obtained at 100 % and 0 % fibrous fracture,
and ( 4) the temperature corresponding to a specific energy
value.
A5.4.3 A problem peculiar to Charpy-type tests occurs
when high-strength, low-energy specimens are tested at low
temperatures. These specimens may not leave the machine in
the direction of the pendulum swing but rather in a sidewise
direction.
To ensure that the broken halves of the specimens do not
rebound off some component of the machine and contact the
pendulum before it completes its swing, modifications may
be necessary in older model machines. These modifications
differ with machine design. Nevertheless the basic problem is
the same in that provisions must be made to prevent
rebounding of the fractured specimens into any part of the
swinging pendulum.
Where design permits, the broken specimens may be
deflected out of the sides of the machine and yet in other
designs it may be necessary to contain the broken specimens
within a certain area until the pendulum passes through the
anvils. Some low-energy high-strength steel specimens leave
impact machines at speeds in excess of 50 ft (15.3 m)/s
although they were struck by a pendulum traveling at speeds
approximately 17 ft (5.2 m)/s. If the force exerted on the
pendulum by the broken specimens is sufficient, the
pendulum will slow down and erroneously high energy
values will be recorded.
This problem accounts for many of the inconsistencies in
Charpy results reported by various investigators within the 10
to 25-ftlbf (14 to 34 J) range. The Apparatus Section (the
paragraph regarding Specimen Clearance) of Test Methods E
23 discusses the two basic machine designs and a
modification found to be satisfactory in minimizing jamming.
A5.5 Velocity of Straining
A5.5.1 Velocity of straining is likewise a variable that
affects the notch behavior of steel. The impact test shows
somewhat higher energy absorption values than the static
tests above the transition temperature and yet, in some
instances, the reverse is true below the transition temperature.
A5.6 Correlation with Service
A5.6.1 While Charpy or Izod tests may not directly predict
the ductile or brittle behavior of steel as commonly used in
large masses or as components of large structures, these tests
can be used as acceptance tests of identity for different lots of
the same steel or in choosing between different steels, when
correlation with reliable service behavior has been stablished.
It may be necessary to make the tests at properly chosen
temperatures other than room temperature. In this, the service
temperature or the transition temperature of full-scale
specimens does not give the desired transition temperatures
for Charpy or Izod tests since the size and notch geometry
may be so different.
Chemical analysis, tension, and hardness tests may not
indicate the influence of some of the important processing
factors that affect susceptibility to brittle fracture nor do they
comprehend the effect of low temperatures in inducing brittle
behavior.
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Transitional temperature may be defined in the following ways:

Lowest temerature specimens exhibit 100% fibrous.

Lowest temerature specimens exhibit 50% fibrous
Temperature correspond to mean of 100% fibrous and 100% crystalline.
Temerature at specific impact energy.

Points to ponders:

On impacting there are 2 types of stresses induced; Normal and the 45 degree to the normal, Shear stress.

Increase the severity of notches:

The normal stress increase

Increase the speed of deformation

Shear strength increase

Raising the temperature

Lower the shear strength. Making it prone to shear failure.

Shear failure lead to ductile failure absorbing more energy.

Brittle failure occur when the normal stress exceed the cohesive force before the shear stress exceed the
shear strength.

For a sample showing ductile failure increase in size increase the amount of metal to be deform and therfore
increase the amount of energy to fracture, however for a specimen on the verge of brittle fracture, increase in
size may increase the restrain, by tending to induce brittle frature may decrease the amount of energy
absorbed.

Rationalizing with the normal stress and shear stress method.

Increase the width, increase the degree of restraint and increase the shear strength, making it more prone to
normal failure which is brittle.

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Inspection & witnessing

Witnessing of Charpy impact testing, following are to be considered;

Laboratory accreditation.
Equipment calibration.
Firmness or steadiness of equipment foundation.
Temperature measurement calibration,
Tong temperature.
Time lapse between placement and striking by pendulum.
Notch tip radii and notch configuration checks with shadow-graph.
Specimen dimension mesurement.
Code and standard reference.
Sub size correlation factors
Retest rules
Acceptance criteria.
Safety.

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Crystalline, shining brittle fracture, absorbing little energy on impact.

Fibrous, dull ductile fracture, absorbing relatively large amount of energy on impact.

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Charpy impact testing machine.

Tested samples fracture appearance.

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Sub-size 5 x 55mm sanples

The lateral expansion measurement using venier caliper

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The V notche of the samples were checked using calibrated shadow-graphic projection.

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Ductile fracture

Ductile fracture

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Ductile and brittle boundary

Brittle fractures

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Microstructural and Fractographic Characterization of a Thermally Embrittled Nuclear Grade

Steel - Quenching and Tempering

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(Intergranular fracture in a nickel-chromium alloy, viewed under the scanning electron microscope. Note that the fracture takes place between
the grains; and that fracture surface has a "rock candy" appearance which reveals the shapes of the individual grains.)

Some Characteristics of Brittle Fracture

There is no gross, permanent deformation of the material.

The surface of the brittle fracture tends to be perpendicular to the principal tensile stress although other
components of stress can be factors.

Characteristic crack advance markings frequently point to where the fracture originated.

The path the crack follows depends on the material's structure. In metals, transgranular and intergranular
cleavage are important. Cleavage shows up clearly in the SEM.

Some Characteristics of Ductile Fracture

There is permanent deformation at the tip of the advancing crack that leaves distinct patterns in SEM images.

As with brittle fractures, the surface of a ductile fracture tends to be perpendicular to the principal tensile stress,
although other components of stress can be factors.

In ductile, crystalline metals and ceramics it is microscopically resolved shear stress that is operating to expand
the tip of the crack.

The fracture surface is dull and fibrous.

There has to be a lot of energy available to extend the crack.

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