The Ideal Gas Law: Lecture 2: Atmospheric Thermodynamics

The Ideal Gas Law
Lecture 2: Atmospheric Thermodynamics

An equation of state describes the relationship among pressure,
temperature, and density of any material.
Ideal Gas Law (Equation of State) All gases are found to follow approximately the same equation
Hydrostatic Balance of state, which is referred to as the ideal gas law (equation).
Atmospheric gases, whether considered individually or as a
Heat and Temperature mixture, obey the following ideal gas equation:
Conduction, Convection, Radiation
Latent Heating P=RT
Adiabatic Process
Lapse Rate and Stability pressure Density=m/V temperature (degree Kelvin)
gas constant (its value depends on the gas considered)
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Prof. Jin-Yi Yu Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Gas Constant
Applications of the Gas law
The ideal gas law can be applied to the combination of
atmospheric gases or to individual gases.
Question: Calculate the density of water vapor which exerts a
pressure of 9 mb at 20C.
The value of gas constant for the particular gas under
consideration depends on its molecular weight:
Answer:
Rgas = R* / Mgas
where R* = universal gas constant = 8314.3 J deg-1 kg-1 Use the ideal gas law: Pv= RvT
and Pv = 9 mb = 900 Pa (a SI unit)
The gas constant for dry atmospheric air is:
Rair = R* / Mair = 8314.3/28.97 = 287 J deg-1 kg-1 Rv = R* / Mv = 461 J deg-1 kg-1
(Mair 0.80*MN2 + 0.20*MO2 = 0.80*28 + 0.2*32 = 28.8) T = 273 + 20 (C) = 293 K.
So we know the density of water vapor is:
The gas constant for water vapor is:
Rvapor = R* / Mvapor = 8314.3/18.016 = Pv/ (RvT) = 900 / (461*293) = 6.67 x 10-3 kg m-3
= 461 J deg-1 kg-1 (from Atmospheric Sciences: An introductory Survey)
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Virtual Temperature
How to Calculate Virtual Temperature?
Moist air has a lower apparent molecular weight that dry air.
The gas constant for 1 kg of moist air is larger than that for 1 kg of
dry air.
But the exact value of the gas constant of moist air would depend on
the amount of water vapor contained in the air.
It is inconvenient to calculate the gas constant for moist air.
It is more convenient to retain the gas constant of dry air and use a
fictitious temperature in the ideal gas equation. Where T: actual temperature
This fictitious temperature is called virtual temperature. p: actual (total) pressure = pd + e
This is the temperature that dry air must have in order to has the same pd: partial pressure exerted by dry air
density as the moist air at the same pressure. e: partial pressure exerted by water vapor
Since moist air is less dense that dry air, the virtual temperature is = Rd/Rv = 0.622
always greater than the actual temperature.
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Hydrostatic Balance in the Vertical

What Does Hydrostatic Balance Tell Us?
vertical pressure force = gravitational force
The hydrostatic equation tells us how
- (dP) x (dA) = x (dz) x (dA) x g quickly air pressure drops wit height.
dP = -gdz
The rate at which air pressure decreases with
dP/dz = -g height (P/ z) is equal to the air density ()
times the acceleration of gravity (g)
The hydrostatic balance !!
(from Climate System Modeling)
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Hydrostatic Balance and Atmospheric Vertical Structure The Scale Height of the Atmosphere
One way to measure how soon the air runs out in the
Since P= RT (the ideal gas
law), the hydrostatic equation atmosphere is to calculate the scale height, which is
becomes: about 10 km.
dP = -P/RT x gdz
Over this vertical distance, air pressure and density
dP/P = -g/RT x dz decrease by 37% of its surface values.
P = Ps exp(-gz/RT)
If pressure at the surface is 1 atmosphere, then it is
P = Ps exp(-z/H)
0.37 atmospheres at a height of 10 km, 0.14
(0.37x0.37) at 20 km, 0.05 (0.37x0.37x0.37) at 30 km,
The atmospheric pressure and so on.
decreases exponentially with
height Different atmospheric gases have different values of
(from Meteorology Today)
scale height.
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A Mathematic Formula of Scale Height

Temperature and Pressure
gas constant temperature
* Hydrostatic balance tells us
gravity that the pressure decrease with
height is determined by the
temperature inside the vertical
scale height column.
molecular weight of gas
Pressure decreases faster in the
The heavier the gas molecules weight (m) the smaller the scale cold-air column and slower in
height for that particular gas the warm-air column.
The higher the temperature (T) the more energetic the air molecules
the larger the scale height Pressure drops more rapidly
The larger the gravity (g) air molecules are closer to the surface with height at high latitudes and
the smaller the scale height lowers the height of the pressure
surface.
H has a value of about 10km for the mixture of gases in the atmosphere,
but H has different values for individual gases. (from Understanding Weather & Climate)
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Warm Core Hurricane Energy (Heat)
Pressure Surface
tropopause The first law of thermodynamics
Z Air Temperature
hydrostatic balance
th
er
m
al
w
in
surface d
hurricane center ba
la
The core of a hurricane is warmer than its surroundings. nc
e
The intensity of the hurricane (as measured by the depression of
pressure surface) must decrease with height.
Thus, a warm core hurricane exhibits its greatest intensity near the Air Pressure geostrophic balance Air Motion
ground and diminish with increasing height above ground.
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(from Understanding Weather & Climate and Atmospheric Sciences: An Intro. Survey) Prof. Jin-Yi Yu Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Heat and Energy

internal kinetic energy What Is Air Temperature?
(related to temperature) Energy is the capacity to do
internal potential energy work.
(related to the phase)
Heat is one form of energy.
Air temperature is a measurement of the average
internal kinetic energy of air molecules.
Heat is one form of internal
energy which is associated
with the random, disordered Increase in internal kinetic energy in the form of
motion of molecules and molecular motions are manifested as increases in
atoms.
the temperature of the body.
Internal kinetic/potential
water energy are different from the
macroscopic kinetic/potential
energy.
no macroscopic kinetic/potential energy
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(from Atmospheric Sciences: An Intro. Survey)
The First Law of Thermodynamics

This law states that (1) heat is a form of energy
that (2) its conversion into other forms of energy
Therefore, when heat is
is such that total energy is conserved. added to a gas, there will be
some combination of an
The change in the internal energy of a system is expansion of the gas (i.e. the
work) and an increase in its
equal to the heat added to the system minus the temperature (i.e. the increase
work down by the system: in internal energy):
U = Q - W Heat added to the gas = work done by the gas + temp. increase of the gas
H = p + Cv T
change in internal energy
Heat added to the system Work done by the system
(related to temperature)
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Prof. Jin-Yi Yu volume change of the gas specific heat at constant volume Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Heat and Temperature Specific Heat
Heat and temperature are both related to the internal

kinetic energy of air molecules, and therefore can be
related to each other in the following way:
Q = c*m*T
Heat added Mass Temperature changed
Specific heat = the amount of heat per unit mass required

to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius
(from Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere)
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How to Change Air Temperature? Conduction
Add (remove) heat to (from) the air parcel (diabatic processes) Conduction is the process of
heat transfer from molecule to
(1) Conduction: requires touching molecule.
(2) Convection: Hot air rises
This energy transfer process
(3) Advection: horizontal movement of air
requires contact.
(4) Radiation: exchanging heat with space
(5) Latent heating: changing the phase of water Air is a poor conductor. (with
low thermal conductivity)
Without adding (removing) heat to (from) the air parcel Conduction is not an efficient
(from Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere) mechanisms to transfer heat in
(1) Adiabatic Process: Expanding and compressing air the atmosphere on large spatial
scales.
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Convection Advection
Convection is heat transfer by mass Advection is referred to the
motion of a fluid (such as air or water). horizontal transport of heat in
the atmosphere.
Convection is produced when the
Warm air advection occurs
heated fluid moves away from the heat when warm air replaces cold air.
source and carries energy with it. Cold air advection is the other
way around.
Convection is an efficient mechanism
of heat transfer for the atmosphere in This process is similar to the
(from Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere)
convection which relies on the
some regions (such as the tropics) but
mass motion to carry heat from
is an inefficient mechanism in other one region to the other.
regions (such as the polar regions).
Advection can be considered as
one form of convection.
(from Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere) ESS55 ESS55
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Radiation Latent Heating
680 cal/gm
Radiation is heat transfer by the emission of
80 cal/gm 600 cal/gm
electromagnetic waves which carry energy away
from the emitting object.
(from Meteorology:
The solar energy moves through empty space Understanding the
Atmosphere)
from the Sun to the Earth and is the original
energy source for Earths weather and climate. Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed per unit mass when
water changes phase.
Latent heating is an efficient way of transferring energy
globally and is an important energy source for Earths weather
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Latent Heat of Evaporation Adiabatic Process

The latent heat of evaporation is a function of If a material changes its state (pressure,
water temperature, ranging from 540 cal per gram volume, or temperature) without any heat
of water at 100C to 600 cal per gram at 0C. being added to it or withdrawn from it, the
change is said to be adiabatic.
It takes more energy to evaporate cold water than
evaporate the same amount of warmer water. The adiabatic process often occurs when air
rises or descends and is an important process
in the atmosphere.
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Air Parcel Expands As It Rises
What Happens to the Temperature?
Air pressure decreases Air molecules in the parcel (or the balloon) have to use their
with elevation. kinetic energy to expand the parcel/balloon.
If a helium balloon 1 m in Therefore, the molecules lost energy and slow down their
diameter is released at sea motions
level, it expands as it floats The temperature of the air parcel (or balloon) decreases with
upward because of the elevation. The lost energy is used to increase the potential
pressure decrease. The energy of air molecular.
balloon would be 6.7 m in
diameter as a height of 40 Similarly when the air parcel descends, the potential energy of
km. air molecular is converted back to kinetic energy.
Air temperature rises.
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(from The Blue Planet)
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(from Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere) ESS55 (from Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere) ESS55
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Concept of Stability Static Stability
Static stability is referred as
to airs susceptibility to uplift.
The static stability of the

atmosphere is related to the
vertical structure of
atmospheric temperature.
To determine the static

stability, we need to compare
the lapse rate of the
atmosphere (environmental
lapse rate) and the dry (moist)
adiabatic lapse rate of an dry
(from Meteorology Today) (from Meteorology Today)
(moist) air parcel.
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Environmental Lapse Rate Static Stability of the Atmosphere

e = environmental lapse rate
The environmental lapse rate is referred to d = day adiabatic lapse rate
m = moist lapse rate
as the rate at which the air temperature
surrounding us would be changed if we Absolutely Stable
were to climb upward into the atmosphere. e < m
Absolutely Unstable
This rate varies from time to time and from e > d
place to place.
Conditionally Unstable
m < e < d
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Absolutely Stable Atmosphere Absolutely Unstable Atmosphere

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Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere Day/Night Changes of Air Temperature

End of Day Night
(from Is the Temperature Rising?)

At the end of a sunny day, warm air near the surface, cold
air aloft.
In the early morning, cold air near the surface, warm air
aloft.
The later condition is called inversion, which inhibits
(from Meteorology Today) convection and can cause sever pollution in the morning.
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Stability and Air Pollution
Neutral Atmosphere (Coning)
Potential Temperature ()
The potential temperature of an air parcel is defined as the the
Stable Atmosphere (Fanning) temperature the parcel would have if it were moved
adiabatically from its existing pressure and temperature to a
standard pressure P0 (generally taken as 1000mb).
Unstable Atmosphere (Looping) = potential temperature

T = original temperature
P = original pressure
P0 = standard pressure = 1000 mb
Stable Aloft; Unstable Below (Fumigation)
R = gas constant = Rd = 287 J deg-1 kg-1
Cp = specific heat = 1004 J deg-1 kg-1
R/Cp = 0.286
Unstable Aloft; Stable Below (Lofting)
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(from Is the Temperature Rising?) Prof. Jin-Yi Yu Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Adiabatic Chart
Importance of Potential Temperature
In the atmosphere, air parcel often moves around

adiabatically. Therefore, its potential temperature
remains constant throughout the whole process.
Potential temperature is a conservative quantity for

adiabatic process in the atmosphere.
Potential temperature is an extremely useful parameter (from Atmospheric Sciences: An Intro. Survey) (from The Physics of the Atmospheres)
in atmospheric thermodynamics. The expression of potential temperature can be modified into:

T = (constant * ) P 0.286
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Water Vapor In the Air
Saturation
(from Understanding Weather & Climate)
Evaporation: the process whereby molecules break free

of the liquid volume.
Condensation: water vapor molecules randomly collide
with the water surface and bond with adjacent molecules.
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(from Meteorology Today) Prof. Jin-Yi Yu Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
How Much Water Vapor Is How Much Heat Is Brought Upward By

Evaporated Into the Atmosphere Water Vapor?
Each Year? Earths surface lost heat to the atmosphere when
water is evaporated from oceans to the atmosphere.
On average, 1 meter of water is evaporated The evaporation of the 1m of water causes Earths
from oceans to the atmosphere each year. surface to lost 83 watts per square meter, almost half
of the sunlight that reaches the surface.
The global averaged precipitation is also
Without the evaporation process, the global surface
about 1 meter per year. temperature would be 67C instead of the actual
15C.
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Measuring Air Moisture Observed Specific Humidity
by mass
in unit of g/kg
in unit of g/m3
by vapor pressure
in unit of %
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Specific .vs. Relative Humidity

Relative humidity
Vapor Pressure
saturated 6/10 x 100%=60 %
specific humidity The airs content of moisture can
10 gm/kg be measured by the pressure exerted
by the water vapor in the air.
specific humidity
6 gm/kg The total pressure inside an air
parcel is equal to the sum of
saturated pressures of the individual gases.
specific humidity
20 gm/kg Relative humidity In the left figure, the total pressure
6/20 x 100%=30 % of the air parcel is equal to sum of
vapor pressure plus the pressures
Specific Humidity: How many grams of water vapor in one kilogram exerted by Nitrogen and Oxygen.
of air (in unit of gm/kg).
High vapor pressure indicates large
Relative Humidity: The percentage of current moisture content to the numbers of water vapor molecules.
saturated moisture amount (in unit of %).
Unit of vapor pressure is usually in
Clouds form when the relative humidity reaches 100%. (from Meteorology Today)
mb.
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Saturation Vapor Pressure How to Saturate the Air?
Saturation vapor pressure describes how
much water vapor is needed to make the
air saturated at any given temperature.
Saturation vapor pressure depends

primarily on the air temperature in the
following way:
The
Clausius-Clapeyron
Equation
(from IS The Temperature Rising)
Two ways:
(1) Increase (inject more) water vapor to the air (A B).
Saturation pressure increases (2) Reduce the temperature of the air (A C).
exponentially with air temperature.
L: latent heat of evaporation; : specific volume of vapor and liquid ESS55
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
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Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Runway Greenhouse Effect Dew Point Temperature

Dew point temperature is
If a planet has a very high temperature that the air can
another measurement of air
never reach a saturation point moisture.
Water vapor can be added into the atmosphere.
Dew point temperature is
More water vapor traps more heat (a greenhouse effect) defined as the temperature to
The planets temperature increases furthermore which moist air must be cool
Ever more water evaporated into the atmosphere to become saturated without
changing the pressure.
More greenhouse effect
More warming The close the dew point
temperature is to the air
More water vapor temperature, the closer the
.. (from The Atmosphere) air is to saturation.
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Adiabatic Chart: Dry Adiabatic /
Adiabatic Chart: P and T
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Adiabatic Chart: Moist Adiabatic Adiabatic Chart: Mixing Ratio
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An Example
Applications of Adiabatic Chart
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The Ideal Gas Law: Lecture 2: Atmospheric Thermodynamics

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The Ideal Gas Law: Lecture 2: Atmospheric Thermodynamics

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Verfügbare Formate

The Ideal Gas Law

Lecture 2: Atmospheric Thermodynamics

Hydrostatic Balance in the Vertical

A Mathematic Formula of Scale Height

Heat and Energy

The First Law of Thermodynamics

Heat and Temperature Specific Heat

Heat and temperature are both related to the internal

Specific heat = the amount of heat per unit mass required

Latent Heat of Evaporation Adiabatic Process

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate

The static stability of the

To determine the static

Environmental Lapse Rate Static Stability of the Atmosphere

(from Meteorology Today) (from Meteorology Today)

Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere Day/Night Changes of Air Temperature

(from Is the Temperature Rising?)

Unstable Atmosphere (Looping) = potential temperature

In the atmosphere, air parcel often moves around

Potential temperature is a conservative quantity for

in atmospheric thermodynamics. The expression of potential temperature can be modified into:

Evaporation: the process whereby molecules break free

How Much Water Vapor Is How Much Heat Is Brought Upward By

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Specific .vs. Relative Humidity

Saturation vapor pressure depends

Runway Greenhouse Effect Dew Point Temperature

(from Meteorology Today) (from Meteorology Today)

Adiabatic Chart: Moist Adiabatic Adiabatic Chart: Mixing Ratio

(from Meteorology Today) (from Meteorology Today)

(from Meteorology Today)

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