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PLANNING OPEN STOPES:
OPERATING CONSTRAINTS
By
J. E. ASKEW!
ABSTRACT
Mine planning for ore recovery by open
stoping and pillar recovery is becoming more
sophisticated, but there are basic operating
constraints which must be imposed if this
planning is to realise the production results
on which the mine is dependant. The production
reliability of an open stope is usually a high
priority and common design problems can be
identified. A range of practical
considerations which should be considered at
the mine planning stage are reviewed including
equipment performance, blasting technology,
ventilation requirements, development layouts,
lead time, ground conditions, support,
backfilling and ore recovery.
INTRODUCTION
Over the past two decades, open stoping
has evolved into a major underground mining
method in metalliferous mines and design
techniques have improved dramatically in this
period. Mine planning for open stoping is
making increasing use of computer design
techniques such as geological data bases for
analyses of stope tonnes and grade and rock
mechanics studies for the optimisation of
extraction and recovery. Nevertheless, the
actual operation of recovering ore from open
stopes is fraught with many of the same
I Principal
Barrett, Askew, Fuller and Partners
The Aus.I.M.M. West Coast Tasmania Branch, Underground Operators' Conference. October 1982.
problems which impinge on other
underground mining techniques, so that mine
planning needs to take account of the
operational aspects of open stoping mining if
the best design is to be achieved.
It is anticipated that open stoping will
continue to dominate underground
metalliferous mining, particularly as
environmental constraints and deeper orebodies
inhibit the use of more efficient mass mining
techniques such as sublevel caving or block
caving. In addition, better understanding of
ground behaviour is leading to the introduction
of modified open stoping techniques such as
cratering and open stope mass blasting followed
by drawdown under rock fill.
It is difficult to generalise in the area
of open stope design and issues raised in the
following presentation are bound to require
varying emphasis with stope design at
different operations. The comments are made
based on observation of the majority of
Australian open stoping operations and a
limited number of operations in Canada, U.S.A.,
Sweden and Spain.
OPERATIONS AND PLANNING OBJECTIVES
The overall objective common to all
underground operations is to maximise total ore
recovery at least cost, in conjunction with
safety of employees and maximised productivity.
Most mines of moderate or larger (+250,000 tpa)
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size will have separate mine planning and
production personnel and while the above
objective might be seen as their mutual goal,
in practice the emphasis on ways of achieving
this goal can be quite different.
Management style and personality at the
operations level will have a great influence
on the relative priorities by planning and
operations staff.
Day to day operating objectives can be
defined as the following
l. to meet production tonnage targets,
2. to mine with maximum safety (and
meet safety targets),
3. to achieve high productivity of the
underground work force,
4. to produce at a design head grade
commensurate with milling
requirements, and
5. to ensure the mine operates
profitably.
These objectives can be ranked in
different order but commonly the production
personnel would assume that, provided
production tonnage targets and head grade
targets are being met, then the planned
profitability will be satisfied.
Achievement of high productivity is an
essential element of mining profitably.
However, unless an accurate reporting
technique for productivity is in use, then
tonnage targets may be achieved by lower
productivity through an excessive pool of
labour. Mine safety is a fundamental
operating objective and open stoping lends
itself to improved safety records through
less exposure of men, less mat~rials
handling and greater mechanisation.
Mine planning objectives for open stope
The Aus.I.M.M. West Coast Tasmania Branch, Underground Operators' Conference. October 1982.
J.E. ASKEW
design will include the above, but in addition
there is a responsibility to:
maximise the recovery of the ore
resource,
ensure long term continuity of
production by scheduling for
tonnes and grade,
minimise ground stability problems
including stress and structure
effects which could lead to
excessive dilution.
Exploration, ventilation and rock
mechanics aspects of planning are considered
to fall within' the realm of mine planning
and as such, the incorporation of these
principles into stope design is necessary to
meet the above objectives. Similarly,
awareness of equipment availability,
performance, materials handling constraints
and milling requirements for ore grade and
type are included in the sphere of mine
planning. These latter aspects require
."
interaction with, and ~adback from,
operating personnel to provide the raw data
upon which open stope mine planning can best
be done. The communication between operations
and planning is considered to be the basis
of better open stope planning and it is in
this area that shortcomings are often
observed at different mine operations.
COMMON PRODUCTION PROBLEMS
Most open stoping operations of medium or
larger size will have more than one producing
stope at any time. The producing stopes will
often be scheduled to provide a consistent
head grade and the production rate from each
stope may be varied to comply with this
amidst the constraints'which relate to the
stage of extraction of each particular stope.
There are commonly observed problems which
 J.E. ASKEW
create shortfalls in bUdget production targets.
Ore fragmentation has a major bearing on
the productivity of mucking units, secondary
breaking requirements, problems within ore
passes, crushing and maximum availability of
drawpoints. Also related to the blasting
phase of extraction, misfires and "benches"
on stope faces can cause very serious delays
in mine production due to delays in blasting.
Equipment availability under average
operating conditions (where these statistics
are available) can vary greatly, as operating
conditions in particular stoping situations
vary. Usually, performance statistics
provided from mine record~ do not provide
sensitivity factors for different operating
conditions such as operator skill, spares
availability, ventilation constraints and
congestion.
Ground instability, both of development
and within the open stope can have very major
effects on production, in the extreme, leading
to stope abandonment.
The lead time for commencing production
from a particular stope can be readily
misjudged due to a variety of factors. These
include:
1. development scheduled under
differing ground conditions with
different development dimensions
and lack of skilled labour,
2. exploration requirements,
3. time taken in drilling the stope
and creating the stope slot,
4. ground support requirements, both
in development and for the stope
(e.g. cable bolting), and
5. completion of backfilling and curing
of fill in adjacent stopes, prior to
The Aus.I.M.M. West Coast Tasmania Branch, Underground Operators' Conference. October 1982.
247
production in the scheduled open stope.
MINE PLANNING FOR PRODUCTION
These production problems can be greatly
alleviated by due consideration at the mine
planning stage. More detailed comments on
the general aspects of these problems as they
might be applied at the mine planning stage
are discussed below.
LEAD TIME
The objective of maximising profitability
demands that exploration and development are
only sufficiently far ahead of production to
ensure that production targets can still be
met. Very often at the feasibility stage,
mine planning exercises will adopt standard
performance criteria such as mine development
at 100 m per period, exploration development
of no more than two year's production and
stope development of no more than one year of
future production. These development
parameters all relate back to an assumed rate
of mine development. A common problem is
that ground conditions or equipment
availability are misjUdged and development
rates fall significantly below the period
development target.
Superimposed on the above development
lead time is the need for exploration
drilling to block out proven stope tonnages
and grade. The diamond drilling density
necessary to provide sufficiently accurate
information is often widely variable between
deposits (and within a deposit where there is
gross variability in the nature of the ore).
Time must a~so be allowed for geological
interpretation of exploration results.
ROCK MECHANICS
Rock mechanics input to open stope design
is best scheduled at the exploration and
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initial planning stage. very often rock
mechanics input to open stope planning is made
far too late, when design problems have
already reached the production phase. This
is partly due to the evolution of rock
mechanics to be identified as a separate
facet of mining engineering. There is a
recent encouraging trend for rock mechanics
to be absorbed back into mine planning
departments and losing its distinct identity.
When this integration is complete then there
will be fewer occurrences of belated rock
mechanics input.
Applied rock mechanics has greatest
value in mine planning aspects which alleviate
production problems in the following areas:
1. Prediction of Stress Related
Instability: Long range planning
must sequence extraction to meet
production requirements whilst
ensuring that related
instability does not jeopardise
recovery. Input of pragmatic
rock mechanics advice is a useful
aid. Where sufficient knowledge
of regional stability has been
developed, numerical modelling
of stope and pillar recovery will
provide supporting evidence to
investigation of alternative
stope dimensions and extraction
sequence strategies.
2. Rock Structure: Structure very
often is the major control of
stope stability, yet stress
analysis commonly is the rock
mechanics tool mine planners
and operators seek in the first
instance. Copious quantities of
numerical modelling computer
printout do not, unfortunately,
provide useful design data unless
The Aus.I.M.M. West Coast Tasmania Branch, Underground Operators' Conference. October 1982.
J.E. ASKEW
the significance of joints, shear
zones, faults, etc, are understood.
The ability of numerical modelling
to take account of rock
structure, blasting and gravity
effects are yet to be resolved.
Rock structure also influences
fragmentation. The exploitation
of structure to improve
fragmentation is yet to be
recognised to the degree achieved
in some surface mines.
3. Instrumentation: Use of simple,
reliable instruments which monitor
stress and rock movement can be
invaluable aids to operations
management. Detection of the
onset of failure and the response
time of rock movement to extraction
and stress build up is realised at
some mines. Data from monitoring
becomes the basis for back
analysing stability performance.
As such, it is the single most
useful tool in validating
numerical models.
4. Dilution: Stope overbreak occurring
during the blasting phase of open
stope mining will displace ore from
mine production. Knowledge of
likely limits of overbreak and
the overbreak grade provides
confidence in mining to budget
production requirements and can
be the basis for examining
alternative blasting sequences.
FRAGMENTATION
The efficiency of open stoping is
sensitive to ore fragmentation. A reduction
in drillhole density will reduce stope
breaking costs (for the same explosive costs)
but poorer fragmentation will usually result
 J .E. ASKEW
in loss of stope productivity. Adoption of
larger LHD's an~ development dimensions to
accommodate coarser ore requires higher
capital and fixed costs respectively:
Crushing costs will also rise. Sensitivity
studies which fully examine the dependance
of productivity and costs on fragmentation are
potentially a valuable test for mine design.
Applied research on the mechanics of
fragmentation is being undertaken at the
University of Queensland.
BLASTHOLE DESIGN
The fundamental axiom for planning of
open stope blastholes is to incorporate an
element of conservatism which takes account
of blasthole deviation, available explosives
and detonators, charging constraints, blast
vibrations limits and variability of rock
conditions. These will vary for different
mines. Acceptable blasthole design is best
resolved by discussion between operations
personnel, explosives suppliers and planning
staff. Close supervision of blasthole
drilling and charging is essential. In most
mines of the size under discussion,
appointment of a drilling and blasting
engineer is warranted to co-ordinate
supervision and progressively refine
blasthole design.
Mass blasting of open stopes is
technically viable and difficulties
experienced by some Australian operations
with this method have lessened recently.
Fragmentation is postulated to improve with
mass blasting, but quantitative evidence is
not yet available. At present, the primary
application of mass blasting is in pillar
blasting against backfill. A total
expansion void of at least 25 per cent is
necessary and blast vibration limits often
require that the charge weight per delay
The Aus.I.M.M. West Coast Tasmania Branch, Underground Operators' Conference. October 1982.
249
interval is carefully controlled. With
quantitative proof of improved fragmentation
by mass blasting, increased use of this method
should occur, particularly as confidence and
experience in mass blasting grows. Exposed
brows in an open stope which is fired in a
number of stages are often unstable,
contributing to secondary breakage and
drawpoint choking. Mass blasting can minimise
these exposures . In addition, drawdown of a
full stope will prevent ventilation short-
circuits through the drawpoints and may
temporarily enhance wall stability.
DRAWPOINT DESIGN, LOADING AND MATERIALS
HANDLING
Drawpoint layout has become more flexible
in recent years with the introduction of the
remote control LHD. Thus, the requirement
of drawpoints to be at 10 - 15 m centres to
provide good coverage for drawdown is no
longer mandatory. Other constraints of
development such as ground conditions and cost
can now have greater emphasis.
LHD productivity and availability are
reduced by unfavourable grades in drawpoints
and skew loading. The drawpoint should allow
a "straight-on" approach to the muckpile and
have a slight down grade to aid crowding.
It is quite common for ground instability
and brow break-back of drawpoints to be
observed. Considering that a single drawpoint
might access high stope tonnages over
extended periods, adequate provision for
support of the brow and general drawpoint
area is worthwhile. Stope and secondary
blasting add to the general wear and tear
that. the drawpoint must withstand. Fully
bonded ground support is best suited to
drawpoint reinforcement.
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The haul distance of LHD's to ore passes
will vary, according to mine layout and cost
criteria. Ore pass storage volume should be
adequate to ensure that it does not constrain
the rate of stope recovery. Provision for
good drainage of the drawpoint level and
maintenance of the roads will improve
productivity. Comparative cost and production
statistics are invaluable to assess the impact
of these measures. Front line supervision,
as with most production activities, has an
over-riding influence on the effectiveness of
measures such as good housekeeping and
safety.
OVERVIEW
Operations management have an
expectation that the mine planning departments
will present open stope designs which can be
implemented with confidence that production
targets will be achieved. Performance
statistics and geological data must be
available and presented in a manner which is
readily assimilated and shows the potential
variability and/or confidence in the
information. A degree of latitude to
accommodate operating problems which could
cause loss of production must be incorporated
into design. Definition of this "contingency
The Aus.I.M.M. West Coast Tasmania Branch, Underground Operators' Conference. October 1982.
J.E. ASKEW
factor" requires experience and, most
importantly, close interaction of. planning,
operations and supervision personnel. It
behoves operations management to ensure open
communication between these groups occurs and
a united approach to achieving both short and
long term production goals.
Avenues for establishing and maintaining
the co-operation required include:
broadening the daily mine
production meetings to include
planning, maintenance, rock
mechanics and geological personnel,
informal access to mine planning
department, etc, by front line
supervisors, whilst maintaining
a structured decision-making
technique which requires that
operations management approval
is given to design changes,
period production planning meetings
which include planning
representatives,
inclusion of an operations
representative(s) in the long
term planning team, and
engendering a team spirit in the
mine staff.