Employee Recruitment 2013

PS64CH15-Breaugh ARI 11 November 2012 9:1
ANNUAL
REVIEWS Further Employee Recruitment
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First published online as a Review in Advance on recruitment methods, recruitment message, recruiters, applicant
October 25, 2012
attraction, employee referral
The Annual Review of Psychology is online at
psych.annualreviews.org Abstract
This articles doi: The way an organization recruits can inuence the type of employ-
10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143757
ees it hires, how they perform, and their retention rate. This article
Copyright c 2013 by Annual Reviews. provides a selective review of research that has addressed recruitment
All rights reserved
targeting, recruitment methods, the recruitment message, recruiters,
the organizational site visit, the job offer, and the timing of recruitment
actions. These and other topics (e.g., the job applicants perspective)
are discussed in terms of their potential inuence on prehire (e.g., the
quality of job applicants) and posthire (e.g., new employee retention)
recruitment outcomes. In reviewing research, attention is given to the
current state of scientic knowledge, limitations of previous research,
and important issues meriting future investigation.
389
Contents The Use of an Employers

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Web Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Employee Recruitment: A Job Boards and Other
Denition and the Scope of Nonemployer Web Sites. . . . 401
This Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Future Research Directions . . . . 402
Recruitment Criterion RECRUITMENT MESSAGE . . . 402
Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 The Amount and the Specicity
THEORY DEVELOPMENT IN of the Information
THE CONTEXT OF Conveyed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
The Realism of the Information
RECRUITMENT
RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Provided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Applicable Psychological Other Areas of Research on the
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Recruitment Message . . . . . . . 404

Examples of the Application of Future Research Directions . . . . 405
Psychological Principles to RECRUITERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
the Recruitment Process . . . . 393 RECRUITMENT MEDIA. . . . . . . 405
THE JOB APPLICANTS THE JOB APPLICANT SITE
PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 VISIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
TARGETING INDIVIDUALS THE JOB OFFER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
FOR RECRUITMENT . . . . . . . 395 THE TIMING OF
RECRUITMENT METHODS . . 397 RECRUITMENT
Two Examples of Past Research ACTIVITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Comparing Several RECRUITING MEMBERS OF
Recruitment Methods . . . . . . 398 UNDERREPRESENTED
Employee Referrals . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 GROUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
College Campus Recruiting . . . . 399 CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . 410
INTRODUCTION Psychology. Therefore, for most topics, this

article provides an overview of early research
Regardless of the type of organization, it is gen-
that has been conducted (arbitrarily dened as
erally accepted that an employers success is
studies published prior to 2000) before more
closely tied to the type of individuals it employs
recent research is addressed (for some topics
(Dineen & Soltis 2011). Given that the way an
such as Web-based recruiting, there is no pre-
employer recruits affects the type of individuals
2000 research to discuss). The rst recruitment
who are hired, it is not surprising that the topic
topic examined is the most fundamental issue
of employee recruitment has attracted consid-
an employer facesthe type of individuals to
erable attention. The goals of this review are
Recruitment target for recruitment. Having decided on the
to provide a sense of the current state of sci-
method: an type of individuals to recruit, an organization
entic knowledge on major recruitment top-
approach (e.g., job needs to determine the method to use to reach
ics, point out limitations of previous research,
advertisements, job these individuals, the recruitment message
fair) used by an and highlight important issues meriting future
to convey, and the type of recruiters to use.
employer to publicize investigation.
a job opening Following a review of studies on these three
This is the rst article on employee re-
topics, this article examines research on a job
cruitment to appear in the Annual Review of
390 Breaugh
applicants organizational site visit, the job behaviors and attitudes of new employees. To
offer, and the timing of recruitment actions. date, posthire outcomes have been the primary
Finally, this article reviews studies that have focus in most areas of recruitment research. In
focused on the recruitment of members of contrast, little attention has been given to pre-
underrepresented groups. This research is hire variables such as attracting the attention of
addressed in a separate section at the end the type of individuals targeted for recruitment.
of this article so that the multitude of issues As will become apparent from this review
involved can be more easily integrated. Prior to of the recruitment literature, it is important
reviewing research on these recruitment topics, for researchers to expand the range of criterion
a number of basic issues (e.g., boundaries for measures they include in future studies. In
this review) are addressed. particular, more attention needs to be given
to job applicant perceptions of and reactions

Employee Recruitment: A Definition to specic recruitment actions (e.g., timely
job offers) given that they likely mediate
and the Scope of This Review

the relationships between an organizations
The breadth of recruitment research neces-
recruitment actions and outcomes in many
sitated that choices be made concerning the
situations. Several aspects of the job applicants
topics covered in this review. In this regard,
perspective are discussed after the topic of the-
given that Ryan & Delaney (2010) recently
ory development in the context of recruitment
examined research relevant to recruiting in
research is addressed.
an international context, this article does not
address this topic. Because little research on in-
ternal recruitment (i.e., an employer recruiting THEORY DEVELOPMENT IN
its own workers for new positions) exists, this THE CONTEXT OF
review focuses on research concerning external RECRUITMENT RESEARCH
recruitment, which is dened as an employers
Despite the sizable amount of research that has
actions that are intended to (1) bring a job open-
been conducted, no general theory of employ-
ing to the attention of potential job candidates
ment recruitment (i.e., a theory that addresses
who do not currently work for the organiza-
the relationships among various recruitment
tion, (2) inuence whether these individuals
variables and how these variables interact with
apply for the opening, (3) affect whether they
job applicant attributes and organizational at-
maintain interest in the position until a job offer
tributes in affecting recruitment outcomes) has
is extended, and (4) inuence whether a job
been offered. Instead, some researchers (e.g.,
offer is accepted (Breaugh 2008, pp. 103104).
Dineen & Soltis 2011, Saks 2005) have provided
incomplete models of the recruitment process
Recruitment Criterion Measures (e.g., relationships between key variables are
Several criteria have been utilized in recruit- not fully explicated, important variables are not
ment studies (Carlson et al. 2002).1 Prehire included), and other researchers (e.g., Allen
outcomes (e.g., number of applicants, job offer et al. 2004, Breaugh 2010) have offered theo-
acceptance rate) involve information concern- retical models that focused on a specic aspect
ing job applicants. Posthire outcomes (e.g., of the recruitment process (e.g., communica-
job performance, employee turnover) involve tion media, the recruitment message) in isola-
tion from other recruitment variables. These
more micro-oriented theories are discussed in
1
In this article, causal terms such as inuences and out- the relevant sections later in this review.
comes are used to reect hypothesized relationships and to The failure of researchers to develop a
simplify the presentation of results even though in many cases
the study being discussed did not use a research design that general theory of recruitment that integrates
allows for the drawing of causal inferences. various aspects of the recruitment process has
www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 391

resulted in a research literature that offers a message (e.g., credible?), the audience for the
fragmented treatment of topics. For example, message (e.g., personality?), the message itself
separate theoretical treatments (i.e., Breaugh (e.g., perceived as threatening?), and the se-
Heuristic: a strategy
that ignores part of the 2008, Earnest et al. 2011, Zottoli & Wanous quence in which the persuasion process unfolds
information, with the 2000) of using current employees to recruit (i.e., a message is attended to, comprehended,
goal of making (a recruitment method), providing a realistic and accepted). McGuires (1968) information
decisions more job preview (a recruitment message), and re- processing model highlights six stages, which
quickly, frugally,
cruiting individuals who have held jobs similar occur in the following sequence: presentation
and/or accurately than
more complex to those being lled (recruitment targeting) of the message, attention to the message, com-
methods (Gigerenzer all hypothesize an effect on the accuracy of prehension of the message, yielding to the ar-
& Gaissmaier 2011, recruits job expectations. Yet, these three gument, retention of the changed attitude in
p. 454) topics have been treated individually in studies memory, and behavior relevant to the attitude
rather than examined in combination as ways (Maio & Haddock 2007, p. 570). One implica-
to inuence job expectations. tion of this information-processing sequence is
that behavior relevant to an attitude will only

occur if the prior stages occur. McGuire did
Applicable Psychological Theory not solely focus on the persuasion process from
As an initial step in developing a general the perspective of an agent who is trying to in-
theory of employee recruitment, it is useful to uence attitudes. He also addressed the target
conceptualize much of what occurs during the of the persuasion effort. For example, he sug-
recruitment process as reecting an attitude gested intelligent message recipients are more
formation/change process that involves indi- likely to comprehend a message but less likely
viduals forming an impression of what working to be persuaded by it.
for an organization would be like. Viewing The third theory of persuasion addressed
the recruitment process in this manner allows is Petty & Cacioppos (1986) elaboration like-
one to draw upon principles derived from lihood model (ELM), which describes when
psychological research on persuasion.2 A useful message processing is likely to be deliberative
starting point for introducing relevant research and when more supercial processing is likely.
on attitude formation and change is a brief These authors suggested that a peripheral route
review of three models (i.e., Hovland et al. to processing information is likely to be used
1953, McGuire 1968, Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) when message recipients lack the motivation
followed by a discussion of several principles or the ability to carefully process (i.e., scruti-
derived from these and other theories. The ma- nize and think about) a message. According to
terial presented in this section is largely drawn ELM, when an individual reects carefully on
from Albarracin & Vargas (2010), Bohner & message content (i.e., central route processing),
Dickel (2011), Kruglanski & Sleeth-Keppler the strength of the argument made is likely to
(2007), and Maio & Haddock (2007). Readers be determinative of attitude change. In contrast
interested in a more nuanced treatment of the to central route processing, Petty & Cacioppo
persuasion process are referred to these sources. posited that such factors as perceived communi-
Hovland et al.s (1953) model of persuasion cator trustworthiness, message length, and the
emphasizes the importance of the source of a number of arguments presented are likely to
be inuential if peripheral processing occurs.
2
The issue of information processing has been
The relevance of research on persuasion for employee re-
cruitment is reected in the following statement by Allen addressed in similar yet distinct ways by oth-
et al. (2004, p. 144): a core activity of recruitment, particu- ers (e.g., Kruglanski & Thompson 1999). For
larly in the early stage of the recruitment process, is commu- example, Chaiken (1987) discussed such pro-
nicating information about jobs, working conditions, expec-
tations, values, and climate in order to persuade prospective cessing as being either systematic or heuristic.
employees to consider joining the organization. Heuristic processing, which is similar to ELMs
392 Breaugh
peripheral processing, is thought to be based on experiences that are not rsthand. For example,
the use of cognitive shortcuts such as the con- a prospective applicant may receive information
sensus heuristicif other people believe the about an employer as a result of his or her ef-
message, it is likely to be true. forts (e.g., Web-based research). The effect of
In terms of generalizing from basic research such secondhand information has been found
on persuasion to an employee recruitment to depend on its perceived credibility, which
context, of central importance is the fact that research has shown to be related to commu-
how carefully a message is scrutinized depends nicator expertise and trustworthiness (OKeefe
on factors related to a message recipients 2002). In turn, trustworthiness has been linked
attention, motivation, and ability. Having to whether a message is two-sided (e.g., presents
introduced three theories of persuasion (ad- positive and negative attributes of a job open-
mittedly in a cursory fashion), the relevance of ing) rather than presenting information that
principles derived from these and other theories only supports the senders position (Chaiken &
of persuasion to recruitment is addressed. Stagnor 1987).3 Research also has shown that
receiving a consistent message from multiple

sources results in an attribution of credibility
Examples of the Application of (Harkins & Petty 1981).
Psychological Principles to the In terms of information processing, most re-
Recruitment Process searchers have viewed job applicants as being
A key issue in the recruitment process is bring- quite deliberative given the consequences of the
ing a job opening to the attention of individ- job search and the job choice processes. Thus,
uals an employer would like to recruit. In this in going through the recruitment process, an
regard, the concept of goal-directed attention applicant is generally viewed as using the cen-
merits consideration. As discussed by Bohner tral processing route. Given the importance of
& Dickel (2011), individuals have limited cog- the job choice decision, it seems likely that most
nitive resources. Therefore, selective attention individuals do carefully consider the attributes
to environmental stimuli is needed for a per- of a job offer. However, the possibility of pe-
son to function effectively (i.e., not be over- ripheral processing, especially in earlier stages
whelmed with information). One factor that has of the recruitment process (e.g., forming an ini-
been shown to inuence what stimuli a person tial impression of an employer), also merits con-
attends to is his or her goals (Dijksterhuis & sideration. In this regard, research (e.g., Zajonc
Aarts 2010). This selective attention effect sug- 1968, 2001) has demonstrated that attitudes can
gests that although active job seekers are likely become more favorable with increasing expo-
to attend to messages publicizing job openings, sure to an attitude object (e.g., an employer)
individuals who are not actively looking for a even if a person is not consciously focusing on
job may not be so attentive. As discussed later the stimulus. Research suggests this mere ex-
in this review, such selective attention has im- posure effect occurs due to a twofold process:
plications for recruiting individuals who are not Repeated exposure facilitates ease of process-
searching for a job. ing, and any mental process that is fast and ef-
In terms of attitude formation, direct expe- fortless engenders a positive affective response
rience with an attitude object has been shown to (Albarracin & Vargas 2010, p. 404). One impli-
have a great effect (Albarracin & Vargas 2010). cation of the mere exposure effect for recruiting
Generalizing to a recruitment context, this di- is that advertisements geared toward presenting
rect experience effect suggests that such things
as having had an internship with an employer
3
is likely to have considerable inuence on a In terms of attitude change, in contrast to increasing cred-
ibility, a two-sided message that includes a refutation of op-
persons initial attitude about the employer. A posing arguments has been shown to be more persuasive than
persons initial attitude also can be affected by a two-sided message without refutation (OKeefe 1999).

a positive image of an organization (i.e., image organization as a place of employment or who

advertising) may prove benecial for making an are favorably disposed toward working there.
employer more attractive to potential job appli- Although other principles concerning per-
cants even if the individuals are not consciously suasion could have been discussed [e.g.,
attending to the ads and even if the individuals Cialdinis (2008) concept of social proof], it
are not actively looking for a job. sufces to state that research on the persua-
Once an initial attitude is formed, re- sion process has direct relevance for the em-
search has shown that this attitude can be ployee recruitment process and merits more at-
hard to change. Three explanations for this tention than it has received. Before discussing
phenomenon are particularly relevant for the research on specic recruitment topics, it is
recruitment process: selective exposure, con- benecial to address the job applicants per-
rmation bias, and initial impressions resulting spective, given that how an applicant reacts to
in information-processing bias. With regard to various recruitment actions can moderate their
selective exposure, the results of several studies effectiveness.
suggest that, having formed an initial opinion,

individuals are motivated to defend the attitude
(Albarracin & Vargas 2010). One way for an THE JOB APPLICANTS
individual to do so is to avoid information PERSPECTIVE
that is discrepant with the initial attitude. The Attracting the attention of potential job appli-
tendency to avoid attitude-incongruent infor- cants is the rst step in the recruitment process.
mation has been shown to be more pronounced It is useful to distinguish two aspects of this vari-
when a persons attitude is stronger (Brannon able: persons becoming aware of a job opening
et al. 2007). The concept of conrmation bias and their actively processing the information
is based on the assumption that people seek to presented. With regard to whether individuals
avoid internal psychological conict. To avoid targeted for recruitment are made aware of a
such conict, there is an inclination to seek in- job opening, researchers largely have ignored
formation that conrms our preexisting beliefs, this variable. This is surprising given that for
feelings, and behaviors (Maio & Haddock 50 years research dealing with persuasion (e.g.,
2007, p. 566). In addition to initial attitudes be- Hovland et al. 1953) has highlighted the im-
ing difcult to change due to the tendencies of portance of attracting the attention of intended
individuals to avoid contradictory information information recipients. In terms of informa-
and to seek out information that is supportive tion that is noticed being actively processed,
of them, the way information is processed interviews with applicants suggest that job ad-
contributes to attitude stability. Specically, vertisements are often skimmed as opposed
research suggests that an individuals initial at- to being systematically processed ( Jones et al.
titude leads the person to process new informa- 2006). To generate deeper processing, recruit-
tion in a biased manner so as to alleviate cogni- ment research (Allen et al. 2004) suggests that
tive inconsistency. Such bias may occur because job-related information that is unexpected, of
early information may increase the accessi- personal relevance to the recipient, and is de-
bility of certain inferences that then serve as a livered in person is more likely to be carefully
basis for interpreting subsequent information considered.
(Bohner & Dickel 2011, p. 404). In the context Considerable research has established that
of employee recruitment, one implication of whether an individual applies for a job opening
the tendencies of selective exposure, conrma- is strongly related to its perceived attractiveness
tion bias, and biased information processing is (Ehrhart & Ziegert 2005). Not surprisingly,
that an organization may benet from targeting job and organizational attributes are key fac-
individuals for recruitment who either have tors in determining a positions attractiveness
yet to form a strong opinion concerning the (Chapman et al. 2005). In this regard, a key
394 Breaugh
attribute is an employers reputation. Studies approach initially followed by a compensatory

have shown reputation to be important both approach (Highhouse & Hoffman 2001). That
because individuals want to impress others is, certain attributes must be present (e.g., a
Noncompensatory
with their afliation with a respected organi- job is located in a certain city) for a posi- decision making:
zation (e.g., Highhouse et al. 2007, Turban tion to be considered as a viable option [e.g., a process in which the
& Cable 2003) and because an organizations Osborn (1990) found that approximately 90% absence of a particular
reputation is interpreted as a signal of positive of the participants in his study reported that attribute (e.g.,
employer health
job attributes (Cable & Turban 2003). In some minimum or special requirement was nec-
insurance) eliminates
terms of a positions attractiveness, two other essary in order for them to consider a job open- the decision alternative
important factors are a persons expectancy ing]. Once these threshold factors have been from further
of receiving a job offer and his or her having met, researchers generally assume that an ap- consideration
alternative opportunities such as another job plicant will consider other job attributes in a
offer (Chapman et al. 2005, Chapman & compensatory fashion. Although Gigerenzer &
Webster 2006). That is, research has found Gaissmaier (2011) did not address the topic of
that individuals tend to downgrade positions job applicant decision making, their discussion
they are not likely to get, and they tend to have of the use of heuristics applies to a recruitment
a higher threshold for what is an acceptable context. For example, research on the recogni-
position if they have other opportunities. tion heuristic suggests that in forming a consid-
In considering the perspective of a job ap- eration set (i.e., a subset of job openings that are
plicant, researchers (e.g., Dineen & Noe 2009) carefully evaluated) from several advertised po-
frequently have assumed that an applicant pos- sitions, job seekers would place a higher value
sesses self-insight concerning his or her abil- on easily recognized alternatives. A key fac-
ities, needs, etc. Based on this assumption, it tor with regard to applicant decision making is
has been suggested (e.g., Breaugh 2010, Earnest the timing of recruitment activities, a topic dis-
et al. 2011) that by providing accurate informa- cussed later in this review. For example, reect-
tion about a job to an applicant, an employer en- ing a desire for uncertainty reduction, there is
ables the person to make an informed job choice evidence that a recruit is likely to accept the rst
decision (e.g., to withdraw as an applicant if a job offer that exceeds his or her threshold for
job is not perceived as a good t). However, job and organizational attributes (Becker et al.
psychological research suggests that assuming 2010).
self-insight may not always be reasonable. For Given the importance of job applicant vari-
example, studies have shown that individuals ables, it is surprising that they have not played
often have an inated view of their abilities a central role in most recruitment studies (e.g.,
(see Dunning 2007). If this is true for recruits, an applicants expectancy of receiving a job of-
and interviews with new employees suggest it is fer being tested as a mediating variable). One
(e.g., Billsberry 2007, Louis 1980), then despite reason for this lack of attention may be that
recruits possessing accurate information about researchers have not given sufcient consider-
a position, they may think they are capable of ation to the type of individuals targeted for re-
handling job duties they actually lack the abil- cruitment (e.g., whether they are likely to have
ity to master. This issue of self-insight (or the self-insight), the next topic addressed.
lack thereof ) has relevance for targeting indi-
viduals for recruitment and drafting a recruit-
ment message, two topics discussed later in this TARGETING INDIVIDUALS
review. FOR RECRUITMENT
It is generally accepted that most individu- In beginning the recruitment process, an
als make decisions about a prospective job (e.g., organization needs to decide what type(s) of
whether to apply, whether to accept a job of- individuals to recruit (e.g., retirees, military
fer) using a noncompensatory decision-making veterans). In addressing the issue of whom

to target, authors (e.g., Billsberry 2007) have types of individuals, including former employ-
highlighted such factors as (a) what type of ees). In a study that involved nurses who applied
individuals will be attracted to a job with an for jobs at several hospitals, Williams et al.
Targeted
recruitment: organization, (b) whether they will possess (1993) gathered data on job applicants and those
recruitment actions the personal attributes (e.g., job experience) applicants who were hired. With regard to
that are designed to needed to be hired, (c) whether job offers applicants, in comparison to persons recruited
generate a particular are likely to be accepted, and (d ) if hired, from colleges and newspaper ads, former em-
type of job applicant
whether targeted individuals will remain with ployees had a higher level of education, greater
(e.g., seniors, veterans,
former employees) the employer for a reasonable length of time. prehire knowledge of the hospital to which
Although these factors have been highlighted they applied, and were more likely to accept
by authors, little empirical research directly job offers. No group differences were found for
relevant to the topic of recruitment targeting employee performance or turnover (the lack of
exists (Dineen & Soltis 2011). For example, posthire outcome differences could be due to
researchers have not compared different differences linked to hospitals not being consid-
groups of recruits in terms of their receptivity ered in data analysis). Taken as a whole, earlier
to job offers. However, a few studies have been research on recruiting former employees sug-
published that are tangentially related to the gests that doing so may be benecial. However,
issue of targeted recruitment. conclusions should be viewed as tentative due
In terms of a group to target, former em- to methodological limitations in the studies
ployees have traditionally been thought to be a conducted.
benecial group based on the assumption that Recent studies suggest that certain types of
they would have more accurate job expecta- individuals are more likely to be interested in
tions, and thus if hired would be more satised a job opening and thus are relevant to the is-
with their jobs and therefore less likely to sue of targeted recruitment. In a study con-
leave them. To test such conventional wisdom, ducted with students, Devendorf & Highhouse
Taylor & Schmidt (1983) used data from (2008) investigated whether individuals would
personnel les to compare employees who be more attracted to places of employment in
found their jobs by means of newspaper ads which coworkers were seen as similar to them-
or employment agencies against individuals selves in terms of personality characteristics.
who previously had worked for the employer. They found support for a similarity-attraction
As hypothesized, Taylor & Schmidt found relationship. In explaining their results, Deven-
rehires were less likely to quit their jobs. This dorf & Highhouse noted that this relationship
study shares three limitations with many of the could be due to individuals feeling more com-
studies that have focused on former employees fortable working with people who are similar to
as a group to target for recruitment. First, it themselves and/or the fact that individuals be-
failed to examine assumed job applicant medi- lieve they are more likely to receive a job offer
ator variables (e.g., did former employees have if an employer has hired people who are sim-
more accurate job expectations?). Second, the ilar to themselves. In a study by Becker et al.
sample used was composed of new employees (2010) that involved job applicants, individuals
rather than applicants. This focus on new em- who had to relocate for a new job were found to
ployees may mask applicant differences (e.g., be less likely to accept job offers. The results of
an employers selection system may reduce these studies suggest that employers may ben-
differences in applicant quality). Third, Taylor et from targeting individuals for recruitment
& Schmidt confounded the types of individuals who are similar to current employees and/or
recruited (i.e., former employees) with how will not need to relocate.
they heard about a job opening (i.e., a newspa- Although authors have noted the impor-
per ad is a recruitment method that may bring tance of an employers decision with regard to
an opening to the attention of several different the type of individuals to target for recruitment
396 Breaugh
(e.g., unless an applicant pool is generated further discussed in subsequent sections con-
that possesses the personal attributes sought cerning recruitment methods and the recruit-
by an organization, the ability of its selection ment message.
Job board:
system to choose individuals who possess such a third-party Web site
attributes is limited), there is a lack of research that enables employers
comparing different groups. In terms of future RECRUITMENT METHODS to list job openings
research, studies are needed that examine Having decided on the type of individuals to
whether some of the hypothesized advantages target for recruitment, an employer needs to
of certain groups really exist. For example, it has select one or more recruitment methods to use
been suggested (Ryan et al. 2005) that individu- to bring a job opening to their attention. In
als who have a family member who works for an this section, two explanations for why recruit-
organization should have a better understand- ment methods are thought to be important are
ing of what a job opening involves and thus presented, an overview of two representative
be less likely to submit an application unless studies that compared recruitment methods is
they perceive good person/job-organization provided, research on four popular recruitment

t. However, the merits of targeting family methods (i.e., current employees, college place-
members have yet to be investigated. Similarly, ment ofces, an employers Web site, and job
Breaugh (2008) presented a theoretical ratio- boards) is reviewed, and future directions for
nale for why recruiting individuals who have research are noted.
worked in jobs similar to an advertised position Although several explanations (see Zottoli
should result in applicants who possess more re- & Wanous 2000) have been offered for why
alistic job expectations and greater self-insight. recruitment methods should affect certain pre-
However, these ideas have not been formally hire and posthire outcomes, two explanations
tested. (i.e., the realism hypothesis and the individual
Particularly valuable would be future studies difference hypothesis) have attracted the most
that consider some of the theoretical principles attention. The realism hypothesis suggests
derived from research on attention and persua- that persons recruited by certain methods
sion. For example, research on goal-directed (especially individuals referred by current em-
attention suggests it would be benecial for ployees) are likely to possess a more accurate
an organization that is interested in recruit- understanding of what a job with an organiza-
ing individuals who are not actively looking tion involves. Having such an understanding
for a job to go beyond relying on such com- allows individuals to make an informed decision
monly used recruitment methods as job adver- about whether a job is a good t. The individual
tisements and its Web site. If noticed at all, job difference hypothesis assumes that different
openings publicized by such methods are likely recruitment methods bring a job opening to
to be processed in a peripheral manner ( Jones the attention of individuals who systematically
et al. 2006, Rafaeli 2006). Research on selec- vary on personal attributes that are linked to
tive exposure and conrmation bias also merits recruitment outcomes. For example, it has
future study. For example, generalizing from been suggested that, in comparison to respon-
psychological research on these topics, it seems dents to newspaper ads, direct applicants (i.e.,
likely that an employer would benet from tar- persons who applied to an organization without
geting individuals who have an initially posi- knowing a job opening existed) would have
tive view of working there or who have yet to greater motivation to work for an employer
form an initial attitude. Recruiting such indi- because they had put forward the effort to drive
viduals eliminates the challenge of having to to a place of business to apply for a job with no
overcome an established negative attitude to- assurance there was a job opening (this logic
ward the employer. The relevance of these basic does not hold if applications are submitted
psychological principles for future research is online).

Two Examples of Past Research recruits had less work experience. Unexpect-
Comparing Several edly, given the overall lack of applicant quality
Prehire recruitment
Recruitment Methods differences reported, employee referrals and di-
outcomes: rect applicants were more likely to receive job
Over the years, there has been considerable re-
information offers. Apparently, the organization had a pos-
search on recruitment methods. Some studies
concerning the itive view of employee referrals and direct ap-
have examined recruitment outcomes across a
consequences of plicants even if the objective selection data did
recruitment actions on variety of recruitment methods. Two of these
not favor members of these groups. Employee
job applicants (e.g., studies (Breaugh et al. 2003, Kirnan et al. 1989)
number of applicants) referrals and direct applicants also were found
are reviewed in order to provide a sense of this
to be more likely to accept job offers.
Posthire recruitment type of research. Kirnan et al. utilized data on
outcomes: job applicants and new employees and focused
information on prehire recruitment outcomes (i.e., applicant Employee Referrals

concerning the
quality, receiving a job offer, and accepting a The use of current employees is generally
consequences of
recruitment actions on job offer) and posthire recruitment outcomes viewed by employers as the best method for
the behaviors and (i.e., retention and job performance). Based on reaching individuals who possess desirable per-
attitudes of new the assumptions that employee referrals (i.e., sonal attributes (Breaugh 2009). Several studies
employees (e.g., individuals who were referred for jobs by cur- have shown there is validity to this perspective
new-hire retention
rent employees of the organization) would be and have increased our understanding of why
rate)
better able to self-select out of consideration using current employees to recruit can be ad-
Employee referral:
for a job that was not a good t (given they vantageous. In the studies discussed, individuals
a recruitment method
that involves an would have received accurate job information recruited by current employees were compared
employee of an from the employee who referred them) and against individuals recruited from all other re-
organization bringing would be prescreened by the current employee cruitment methods combined.
a job opening to the (i.e., only individuals who were seen as quali- Fernandez & Weinberg (1997) tested
attention of a
ed for a position would be referred), Kirnan whether referred applicants for call center jobs
prospective job
candidate et al. (1989) hypothesized that employee refer- had advantages at the interview and job offer
rals would be superior in terms of prehire out- stages of the recruitment process because they
comes in comparison to individuals recruited by had been screened by the employees who re-
means of newspaper ads, college placement of- ferred them. Supporting their hypotheses, em-
ces, or employment agencies. Their hypothe- ployee referrals were found to be superior to
ses were conrmed. In looking at recruitment nonreferrals in terms of computer skills, lan-
method effects on posthire outcomes, Kirnan guage skills, education, and work experience.
et al. created two composite groups. The infor- Given these advantages, it is not surprising that
mal group included referrals and direct appli- referrals were more likely to receive job offers.
cants. The formal group included individuals Castilla (2005) examined whether referrals were
who were recruited by other methods. Results more likely to be hired and complete a training
showed a small employee retention effect favor- program than nonreferrals. As predicted, they
ing those in the informal group; no difference were. Castilla also found the initial job perfor-
was reported for job performance. Utilizing mance of referrals exceeded that of nonrefer-
archival data on job applicants, Breaugh et al. rals, which he hypothesized was due to their re-
(2003) examined the relationships between ve ceiving coaching and pressure to perform from
recruitment methods (i.e., current employees the employees who referred them.
making referrals, direct applicants, college re- Based on their belief that researchers needed
cruitment, job fairs, and newspaper ads) and six to be more nuanced in studying employee re-
prehire outcomes. No group differences were ferral effects, Yakubovich & Lup (2006) investi-
found for education, test score, and interview gated prehire differences for three groups of call
score. Compared to the other groups, college center applicants (i.e., individuals who became
398 Breaugh
aware of job opening by means of the Internet, of an employer, intent to apply for a job with the
persons who were referred by employees who employer, and submission of an application).
had been rated as high performers by the orga- They found that advertising and WOM en-
nization, and individuals who were referred by dorsements were related to all three outcomes,
employees who had been rated as performing and sponsorship was linked to application
at a lower level). For several reasons (e.g., high intention. Collins & Han (2004) examined the
performers should be more aware of what per- effects of general recruitment advertisements,
sonal attributes are needed to perform a job well sponsorship, detailed recruitment ads, and
and thus be better able to refer individuals who employee endorsements on several prehire
are qualied for the job; high performers should outcomes. They reported that the use of these
value their reputations more and thus be less recruitment practices was positively related to
likely to refer poor prospects), Yakubovich & applicant grade point average and the percent-
Lup hypothesized that individuals referred by age of positions lled. All of the practices except
high-performing employees should have higher endorsements were related to the number of
scores on selection measures than individuals applicants. All of the practices except the use of
referred by lower-performing employees, who detailed advertisements were predictive of the
should have higher scores than individuals re- rated quality of applicants. Collins (2007) stud-
cruited via the Internet. These authors found ied whether the same four recruitment practices
support for their hypotheses. examined in his research with Han predicted
In summary, there is substantial evidence student intentions to apply for jobs and whether
that the use of current employees for gener- they subsequently did. All four practices pre-
ating job applicants is benecial for employ- dicted both outcomes. In summary, the studies
ers. Specically, studies have shown that, in by Collins and his associates suggest that, by
comparison to nonreferrals, persons referred by taking a number of recruitment-related actions
current employees were superior in terms of prior to visiting a college, an organization may
application credentials, were more likely to be inuence the number of job applicants, appli-
hired, and performed at a higher level. cant quality, and their interest in an employer.
Several variables (e.g., products, lawsuits)
can affect an organizations general reputation
College Campus Recruiting (Highhouse et al. 2009). Therefore, research
The coverage of research on college campus on this topic is not addressed in detail in this
recruiting in this section is abbreviated given a review. However, given that an organizations
good deal of the research discussed in other sec- reputation and visibility have been shown to
tions of this review was conducted with college be important in terms of college recruitment, a
students and thus applies to college recruiting. couple of research results merit mention. One
However, a series of studies by Collins and his nding of interest was reported by Collins &
colleagues merits attention. These researchers Stevens (2002). In addition to studying recruit-
were particularly interested in the inuence of ment variables, they examined the effects of
early recruitment actions by an employer on job general publicity concerning an organization
applicants. (e.g., being familiar with a news story about
Collins & Stevens (2002) investigated the an employers products). They not only found
impact of three recruitment-related actions: general publicity to be related to individuals
sponsorship (e.g., an employer funds cam- attitudes and application intentions, but such
pus scholarships), advertising (e.g., students publicity also predisposed students to more
reported seeing job ads on campus), and word- carefully process recruitment information.
of-mouth (WOM) endorsements (e.g., faculty Turban & Cable (2003) looked at organiza-
had said an employer is a good place to work) on tional reputation effects in two studies (reputa-
three prehire outcomes (i.e., student opinions tion ratings were based on external sources such

as Fortune magazine). In study 1, which was employer by a third party and thus their having
conducted with undergraduate students who greater credibility than employer-generated
applied for interviews through a college place- information. Research also has documented
ment ofce, employer reputation was found to that employer Web sites that provided more
be related to the number of applications sub- information concerning a job opening were
mitted and the quality of the applicants (rated viewed more positively by students and re-
in terms of academic performance, work expe- sulted in their expressing a greater likelihood
rience, and extracurricular activities). In study of applying for a job (Allen et al. 2007).
2, which was conducted with MBA students, Because past research (e.g., Cable & Yu
employer reputation was shown to predict the 2006) has shown that employer Web sites
number of students who attended on-campus are sometimes viewed as lacking in terms of
information sessions held by an employer. Such providing useful and credible information, re-
sessions are important because they allow for searchers have investigated ways that Web site
an in-person two-way exchange of information, effectiveness might be increased. For example,
which research by other researchers has shown Walker et al. (2009) used a simulation study to
to be linked to central route processing of manipulate the presence/absence of employee
information and greater message credibility. testimonials and the richness of the media used
to present a testimonial (i.e., a video with audio
versus a picture with text). The inclusion of a
The Use of an Employers Web Site testimonial was found to be positively related
Because the use of employer Web sites for re- to the amount of time a student spent on a Web
cruiting is a relatively new phenomenon, there site, employer attractiveness, and information
is no pre-2000 research to review. More re- credibility. Presenting a testimonial via a richer
cently, there has been considerable research on medium was linked to greater employer attrac-
this topic in an effort to understand whether tiveness and information credibility. Braddy
Web site characteristics have a meaningful in- et al. (2009) had students view ctitious Web
uence on job applicants. Most of this research sites in order to determine whether four Web
has involved studies that either analyzed exist- site attributes (i.e., employee testimonials,
ing employer Web sites or manipulated Web awards received, pictures of employees, and
site characteristics of hypothetical employers stated organizational policies) would inuence
in experimental simulations in which students perceptions of organizational culture. They
played the role of a job applicant. concluded that all four attributes were useful
In terms of the rst type of study, research in communicating information about culture.
conducted by Cober et al. (2004) is representa- Thus, the ndings of this study parallel
tive. These researchers analyzed the ease with those reported by Walker et al. (2009) with
which a Web site could be navigated, aesthetic regard to the value of including employee
features of its design, and the positivity of testimonials in a Web site and the results
the information provided. Each of these reported by Braddy et al. (2006) in terms
factors was shown to be important to potential of including information concerning awards
recruits. Braddy et al. (2006) had students visit received.
Web sites of large corporations. In addition A concern with using a Web site for recruit-
to replicating the results of prior studies ing is that an employer will be inundated with
concerning the importance of Web site design, applications, many from individuals who are not
they found that providing information about qualied for an advertised position. As a way to
awards an employer had won had a positive deal with this issue, Dineen et al. (2002, 2007)
impact on student impressions. This impact investigated the utility of providing information
likely resulted from awards being perceived to applicants concerning person-organization
as reecting an objective judgment of an t (i.e., a score was provided that reected the
400 Breaugh
similarity between what a person sought in an attractiveness ratings of more experienced

employer and what the employer was like) in individuals than on the ratings of those with
simulation studies with students. Their results less work and job-hunting experience. Alterna-
suggest that providing individualized feedback tively, given their lower level of ability in terms
concerning t has benecial outcomes. For ex- of a job search, Walker et al. hypothesized
ample, students receiving feedback that they that individuals with less experience would
were a good t were more attracted to an or- be more affected by peripheral Web site
ganization, spent more time viewing a Web characteristics (e.g., the physical attractiveness
site, and were better able to recall Web site of the individuals portrayed). Both hypotheses
information. Although the interactive capabil- were supported. In a latter study, Walker et al.
ity of using a Web site to provide information (2011) examined whether the effects of Web
concerning person-organization t is intrigu- site characteristics on ratings of organizational

ing, it remains an open question whether real attractiveness varied depending upon how
job applicants will provide accurate information familiar a site visitor was with the organization.
about themselves (e.g., their values and skills) so Specically, they investigated whether the
that valid t information can be provided by an technological sophistication of a Web site (e.g.,
organization. including video testimonials from employees)
To date, most studies have involved stu- had a greater effect if individuals lacked
dents who evaluated the Web sites of actual familiarity with an employer. They found it
employers or took part in simulation studies did. It appears that being unfamiliar with an
in which Web site characteristics were ma- employer made it more likely for individuals
nipulated. Therefore, a study by Selden & to draw inferences about unknown job-related
Orenstein (2011) that examined the use of Web characteristics from the Web site.
sites by state government agencies for recruit-
ing provides a novel perspective. The results of
this study support the ndings of many of the Job Boards and Other Nonemployer
studies conducted with students. For example, Web Sites
Selden & Orenstein found that Web sites that Given their inherent advantages (e.g., low cost
were rated as being easier to navigate generated compared to college recruitment), many em-
more applicants. They also reported that sites ployers use their Web sites to recruit. However,
with higher-quality content (e.g., more detailed for an organization that does not have great vis-
job information) received fewer applications, ibility, sole reliance on its Web site could re-
which they interpreted to mean that such con- sult in a small pool of job applicants. Therefore,
tent allowed individuals to screen themselves many employers use job boards to publicize job
out if they did not perceive a good t with the openings. To date, only a few studies have ex-
job and/or the employer. amined their use.
In terms of research on Web sites, one Jattuso & Sinar (2003) investigated differ-
nal issue deserves attention. Although most ences in the type of applicants generated by
researchers have focused on main effects, two general job boards (e.g., Hotjobs.com) and
recent studies have reported interesting inter- industry/profession-specic job boards (e.g.,
action effects. Assuming that individuals with SalesJobs.com). They found that applicants
greater work experience and job search experi- from more focused job boards were rated as
ence would have a higher level of ability to pro- having better educational credentials and a
cess recruitment information, based on Petty & higher level of skill but less work experience.
Cacioppos (1986) ELM, Walker et al. (2008) A concern with using job boards is that they
hypothesized that information concerning a often result in an overwhelming inux of
job opening (e.g., training provided) would applications. A study by Backhaus (2004) of
have a greater impact on the organizational job advertisements placed on Monster.com

may explain why this can occur. He discovered Future Research Directions
that the great majority of ads presented very
In terms of future research on recruitment
favorable information and failed to provide
methods, three issues merit particular atten-
information that would help a job seeker to
tion. First, it is important that more eld
differentiate one organization from another. As
research be conducted with actual job appli-
a way to affect both the number of applications
cants. In this regard, researchers might be able
received and the quality of the applicants,
to cooperate with organizations in conducting
Dineen & Noe (2009) used a simulation
studies that involved manipulating characteris-
study involving students in which customized
tics of their Web sites and examining whether
person-job t information was provided by a
recruitment outcomes are affected. Second,
ctional job board. Their ndings suggest that
more attention needs to be given to mediating
providing t information can result in a smaller

variables that explain why recruitment meth-
applicant pool and one that is of higher quality.
ods may matter. For example, although it has
In addition to using employer Web sites and
been assumed that current employees making

job boards in a job search, individuals may use
referrals provide realistic job information
other Web sites. Two recent studies have ad-
to individuals they refer and do preliminary
dressed such sites. Cable & Yu (2006) randomly
screening (i.e., only refer good candidates), data
assigned MBA students who were on the job
have yet to be gathered from those making re-
market to one of three conditions: spend ve
ferrals on whether this occurred. In this regard,
minutes talking to an assigned companys rep-
researchers also might examine whether the ad-
resentative at a career fair, spend ve minutes on
vantages linked to the use of current employees
an assigned companys Web site, or spend ve
is at least partially due to their ability to bring
minutes studying postings about an assigned
job openings to the attention of talented indi-
company on Vault.com (an electronic bulletin
viduals who are not actively looking for a job. A
board on which company employees can share
third issue for future research is to broaden the
their perceptions). Cable & Yu predicted that
range of the recruitment methods examined.
information provided by a company represen-
In recent years, employee referrals, college
tative or a company Web site would be rated
recruiting, and the use of an employers Web
as less credible than information presented by
site have drawn the majority of the attention.
a bulletin board, given that the company con-
Given the increasing use of social networking
trols the information provided by the rst two
sites and job boards, these and other methods
sources. Surprisingly, they found just the oppo-
of generating applicants merit attention.
site. Cable & Yu speculated that a bulletin board
being rated as a less credible source of infor-
mation may be due to individuals discounting RECRUITMENT MESSAGE
negative comments as coming from disgrun- The way a recruitment message is worded has
tled employees and positive comments as belong been thought to be important both in
ing testimonials that may be company initiated terms of attracting job applicants and in sub-
(data that might support this speculation were sequently lling job openings (Wanous 1992).
not gathered). Utilizing similar logic to that Therefore, it is not surprising that the ef-
of Cable & Yu (2006), Van Hoye & Lievens fects of conveying different types of recruitment
(2007) hypothesized that information provided messages have been extensively studied by re-
on an employers Web site would be rated as searchers. Much of this research has focused on
less credible than information provided via a the wording of job advertisements. As will be-
company-independent Web site and therefore come apparent from the review of the research
have less impact on organizational attractive- conducted, several ndings from research on
ness. The results of their simulation study sup- the persuasion process are applicable to the
ported their hypothesis. recruitment message.
402 Breaugh
The Amount and the Specificity of the interest in job openings that included
Information Conveyed personality-related wording that matched their
personality as assessed by a personality test
One aspect of a recruitment message that has Realistic job preview
(e.g., outgoing students were more attracted (RJP):
received attention is the amount of information
to a job opening that required outgoing communication by an
communicated. In this regard, it has been well
applicants). employer during the
documented that recruits often lack informa-
recruitment process of
tion about a position being considered, and that accurate information
this lack of information makes them less likely The Realism of the
concerning a job
to accept job offers (e.g., Barber & Roehling Information Provided opening
1993). Researchers have offered two explana- An aspect of a recruitment message that has
tions for negative reactions to a lack of infor- received substantial attention is the realism of
mation. One explanation is that individuals may the information communicated. Most of this
perceive the failure of an employer to provide research has involved the use of a realistic job
sufcient information as a signal of its lack of preview (RJP), which involves the presen-
interest in them. A second explanation is that tation by an organization of both favorable
a lack of information creates a state of uncer- and unfavorable job-related information to job
tainty for individuals, which they would prefer candidates (Phillips 1998, p. 673). Theory
to avoid in making a job choice decision. In two (Breaugh 2010) suggests that providing realistic
studies that manipulated the amount of infor- information about a job during the recruitment
mation provided, Allen et al. (2007) replicated process should result in new employees being
the nding that providing a greater amount of more likely to have their job expectations
job-related information is linked to position at- met based on the assumption that an RJP
tractiveness, and Allen et al. (2004) showed that allows individuals who do not perceive good
a recruitment message that provided more in- person-job/organization t to withdraw as job
formation was viewed as more credible. candidates. In turn, met expectations have been
A number of researchers have examined shown to be related to lower employee turnover
the effects of the specicity of a recruitment and higher job satisfaction (Wanous et al. 1992).
message in studies with college students. For It also has been hypothesized that providing
example, research (Mason & Belt 1986) has an RJP can result in greater role clarity (which
shown that a job advertisement that provided should affect job performance), an enhanced
specic information about the type of personal ability to cope with job demands (e.g., being
attributes (e.g., work experience) sought in an forewarned of unpleasant interactions with
applicant reduced the percentage of unquali- customers allows a person to rehearse how to
ed individuals who applied. Providing more respond), and perceptions that an organization
specic information also has been found to is honest. From this abbreviated description of
create a higher level of interest in a job opening why RJPs should work, it should be apparent
and result in more attention being paid to that several moderating and mediating vari-
the recruitment message (Barber & Roehling ables may inuence the relationship between
1993). Providing a more detailed recruitment receiving an RJP and outcomes such as volun-
message also can result in individuals perceiving tary turnover. In terms of moderators, Breaugh
better person-organization t (Roberson et al. (2010) noted that RJPs should have larger
2005). In this regard, the results of a study by effects when provided prior to hiring, when re-
Stevens & Szmerekovsky (2010) are of interest. cruits have inaccurate information about a job,
These researchers provided students with job and when applicants have other job opportuni-
advertisements that differed in terms of the ties. In terms of mediators, variables such as job
personality characteristics sought in applicants. performance and employee turnover should
They reported that students expressed greater be inuenced through an RJPs impact on met

expectations, role clarity, coping ability, and what was lost by not applying, an ad phrased in
perceptions of employer honesty. terms of what is gained by applying resulted in
In the 1970s and 1980s, several RJP eld higher ratings of organizational attractiveness.
experiments (e.g., Ilgen & Seely 1974, Suszko Buckley et al. (1998) experimented with
& Breaugh 1986) were conducted. Most of an expectation-lowering procedure (ELP) that
these studies reported positive RJP effects. The reminded individuals that they typically de-
results of Phillipss (1998) meta-analysis sup- velop unrealistic expectations, which may result
port many of the hypothesized relationships be- in mismatches of individual expectations and
tween RJPs and prehire (e.g., accurate initial what an organization may realistically provide
job expectations) and posthire (e.g., job perfor- (p. 453). They randomly assigned newly hired
mance) outcomes. Although many of the overall workers during a company orientation program
RJP effect sizes Phillips reported were modest, to either an ELP group or a group that received
her moderator analyses showed stronger effects. a traditional orientation message. The ELP was
For example, as one would expect from the the- effective in lowering job expectations and em-
ory underlying their use, Phillips found RJPs to ployee turnover. In a follow-up study with ap-
have greater impact on such variables as volun- plicants for telemarketing jobs, Buckley et al.
tary turnover and job satisfaction if they were (2002) reported similar results.
provided prior to hiring rather than posthir- Van Hoye & Lievens (2005, 2007, 2009)
ing. Recently, Earnest et al. (2011) conducted conducted a series of studies that examined the
a meta-analysis that incorporated several RJP impact of WOM information (i.e., information
studies published since Phillipss meta-analysis about an employer that is independent of its
into her data set. They found similar results to recruitment efforts). Their rst two studies
those reported by Phillips. For example, RJPs involved simulations with students acting as re-
were associated with higher ratings of role clar- cruits. The results of these studies suggest that
ity and organizational honesty and with less compared to employer-provided information
voluntary turnover. (e.g., Web-based testimonials), WOM infor-
mation had a stronger effect on perceptions
of organizational attractiveness. These WOM
Other Areas of Research on the effects seem to be largely due to nonemployer
Recruitment Message sources having greater credibility, especially
In addition to examining the effects of the if the WOM source was a friend. Van Hoye
amount of information, its specicity, and its & Lievens (2009) conducted a eld study that
realism, research on the recruitment message involved potential applicants targeted by the
has investigated a number of other factors. Belgian Defense (i.e., persons who had visited
For example, Highhouse et al. (1998) examined its Web site). Among their ndings were
whether describing job openings as being scarce that the submission of a job application was
(i.e., few in number) would affect ratings of job predicted by organizational attractiveness and
and organizational attributes. They reported a the amount of time spent receiving positive
number of scarcity effects. For example, their WOM information. The amount of time spent
position scarcity manipulation resulted in pay receiving negative WOM information was
being estimated as being $1.70 higher than in unrelated to the submission of an application.
the nonscarcity condition, suggesting that indi- This nding may be explained by two factors.
viduals may infer certain information from the First, individuals reported they spent less time
wording of an ad (e.g., if an employer has several receiving negative WOM information com-
openings, it must not pay well). Thorsteinson pared to positive WOM information. Second,
& Highhouse (2003) examined the framing of the positive WOM information was frequently
a job advertisement. They found that, in com- received from friends or relatives (rather than
parison to an ad that was phrased in terms of acquaintances) and from individuals who were
404 Breaugh
perceived as having greater expertise (e.g., Breaugh 2008). More recently, researchers have
persons who worked for Belgian Defense). focused on the inuence of recruiter behavior.
The nal WOM study reviewed was carried A meta-analysis by Chapman et al. (2005) pro-
out by Jaidi et al. (2011). For their sample, vides a good summary of the results of these
receiving positive WOM information from studies, most of which were conducted with col-
alumni was positively related to the job pursuit lege students. They reported that individuals
of graduating masters students, and negative who rated recruiters as being personable, com-
WOM information from alumni was inversely petent, informative, and trustworthy also rated
related to job pursuit behavior. a job opening as being more attractive and ex-
pressed a higher probability of accepting a job
offer.
Future Research Directions Taken as a whole, research suggests the type

In terms of future research on the recruitment of recruiter used may matter (a) because re-
message, an issue that merits attention is how to cruiters vary in the amount of job-related in-
effectively convey to job applicants information formation they possess and thus can share (e.g.,
concerning how they are likely to react to vari- in comparison to a corporate recruiter, an em-
ous attributes of a position. In this regard, RJPs ployee in a department with a position to ll
are decient because they provide descriptive likely will be more informative concerning job
information. Although sharing factual informa- duties), (b) because they differ in terms of their
tion (e.g., a job requires working rotating shifts) credibility (e.g., a corporate recruiter may be
is benecial, it may not convey a complete viewed as more interested in selling a position
picture of a job because many applicants do than in conveying a realistic job preview), and
not have the ability to interpret the meaning (c) because of inferences drawn by a recruit (in
of purely descriptive information (Wanous the next section, research is reviewed that shows
1992, p. 129). To address this issue, Wanous that interacting with a higher-level employee
recommended that, in addition to descriptive may signal that the position is of greater signif-
information, evaluative information should icance to the organization).
be communicated in order to provide a more The preceding three factors suggest that fu-
visceral understanding of what a new position ture research on recruiters needs to be more nu-
involves. Such evaluative information could ad- anced. For example, with regard to Chapman
dress how new employees typically react to job et al.s (2005) nding that a recruiters being
attributes. Conveying evaluative information viewed as competent has benecial effects, an
is likely to result in job applicants viewing an open question iswhat factors result in being
employer as being honest with them and should viewed as more competent? As another exam-
result in better person-job/organization t. ple of the need for more ne-grained research,
it has been commonly assumed that current em-
ployees will screen individuals before referring
RECRUITERS them and that they will also provide realistic job
The effects of using different types of re- information. However, if an employee receives
cruiters have drawn considerable attention a sizable bonus for making a referral, screening
from researchers (e.g., Carless & Wintle 2007, and providing a realistic job preview may not
Connerley 1997). Many of the early studies occur.
looked at recruiter demographic characteristics
and tested whether recruiters who were sim-
ilar in race or gender to an applicant would RECRUITMENT MEDIA
be viewed more favorably. For the most part, Media richness theory (Daft & Lengyl
such recruiter/applicant similarity effects have 1984) suggests that in conveying informa-
not been found (for a review of this research, see tion, especially complex information, not all

communication media are equally effective. diversity) and location (e.g., safety of the neigh-
Rather, face-to-face communication is seen as borhood). Likely of greater importance, during
superior, followed by video, audio, and text. a site visit an applicant generally has the op-
This rank-ordering is based on the following portunity to interact for the rst time (or more
properties of in-person communication: A intensively) with prospective coworkers and his
two-way interaction attracts greater attention or her potential supervisor and view the imme-
from an information recipient, and it allows for diate work environment (e.g., spaciousness of
questions to be answered, facial cues and tone cubicles). In summary, a site visit affords an em-
of voice can be considered, information can ployer the opportunity to provide more infor-
be personalized, etc. The basic tenets of media mation about a job, more specic information,
richness theory clearly apply to recruitment more realistic information, and more credible
research. For example, in considering recruit- information (e.g., rsthand knowledge typi-
ment methods, a current employee contacting a cally has more credibility than being informed
potential referral may involve an in-person two- by others). Acquiring such information has the
way communication, whereas the use of a job potential to considerably modify an applicants
advertisement would typically involve either initial view of a job with an organization. In
audio (e.g., a radio ad) or text (e.g., a job board addition, being invited for a site visit often is
listing). However, it is difcult to compare reviewed by an applicant as a signal that he or she
cruitment methods in terms of media richness has a good likelihood of receiving a job offer.
theory because the recruitment message is not In one of the rst studies to focus on the
standardized. Allen and his associates (e.g., applicant site visit, Rynes et al. (1991) found it
Allen et al. 2004, Otondo et al. 2008) are among to have a sizable impact. For example, approx-
the few researchers who have investigated the imately 30% of their interviewees (i.e., college
effects of utilizing different media to convey the students seeking jobs) said they rejected job of-
same recruitment message. Although results fers from organizations to which they had orig-
are not entirely consistent, initial ndings sug- inally been attracted after their site visits (this
gest potential benets of utilizing face-to-face suggests that initial attitudes can be changed
communication as a recruitment media. In by the rsthand experience of a company visit).
future studies, the psychological factors (e.g., Three factors were cited as being important by
physical presence attracting greater attention) these interviewees: whether the employer was
comprising media richness theory need to be exible in scheduling a visit, whether the appli-
examined in order to better understand both cant was treated in a professional manner, and
recruitment method and recruiter effects. whether the applicant met high-status individu-
als. In another early study, Turban et al. (1995)
reported that applicants ratings of site host lik-
THE JOB APPLICANT SITE VISIT ability were associated with their decision to ac-
A job applicants visit to an organizations head- cept a job offer. This nding may be due to
quarters has received relatively little attention the fact that the person hosting the visit would
from researchers. This is surprising when be a coworker of the recruit if the person were
one considers that, in comparison to other to be hired. In a more recent study, Boswell
recruitment activities (e.g., an interaction with et al. (2003) found that applicants were posi-
a recruiter at a job fair), a site visit generally tively inuenced by having the opportunity to
provides a longer and more intense applicant- talk with current employees who held the same
company interaction (Taylor & Bergmann job for which they applied, to meet employ-
1987, p. 273) and therefore should have a ees who had similar backgrounds to theirs, and
signicant inuence on a recruit. For example, to interact with high-level managers. They also
during a site visit, a job candidate should get a reported that site arrangements (e.g., a well-
rsthand view of an employers work force (e.g., organized schedule, an impressive hotel room)
406 Breaugh
made a favorable impression on applicants. A Utilizing a sample of college students drawn

simulation study conducted with college stu- from two universities, Barber et al. (1999) found
dents by Saks & Uggerslev (2010) found effects that job offers that allowed applicants a de-
similar to those of Boswell et al. (2003) with re- gree of exibility with regard to the start date
gard to being able to interact with prospective for beginning employment were more likely to
coworkers as well as higher-level managers. be accepted than offers with a xed start date.
In terms of future research, three issues are Boswell et al. (2003) reported that, for a sam-
highlighted. First, more attention needs to be ple of college students, an employers includ-
given to exactly what occurred during a visit and ing a deadline for job offer acceptance did not
the effect it had. Second, more attention needs result in negative reactions (these authors re-
to be given to the effect of an employer pro- ported that several individuals in their sam-
viding information concerning the local com- ple asked for and received extensions to their
munity. In terms of a community, the following deadline).
characteristics could be important to an appli- Given that the primary purpose of recruiting
cant: (a) ethnicity (e.g., will an applicants chil- is to ll job openings, it is remarkable that so lit-
dren be able to be raised in a diverse environ- tle research has focused on job offer acceptance
ment?), (b) religion (e.g., will an applicant be as an outcome variable. In terms of future re-
able to locate an acceptable religious commu- search, studies of all types are needed. However,
nity?), (c) employment opportunities (e.g., will a research that addresses how the nature of a job
spouse or a signicant other be able to nd suit- offer may affect inferences drawn by applicants
able employment?), and (d ) community values about a job with an organization seems partic-
(e.g., are dominant political beliefs compatible ularly important. For example, what inferences
with those of the applicant?). The inferences might job applicants draw if required to sign an
that an applicant may draw about unknown job employment-at-will contract? Do recruits view
and/or organizational attributes based on a site having to sign a noncompete agreement or re-
visit is another topic in need of more research. ceiving a lowball salary offer as a signal of un-
For example, a poorly organized visit might be desirable organizational attributes?
seen as an indicator of how other aspects of the
business are run or how interested the employer
is in the recruit. THE TIMING OF
RECRUITMENT ACTIVITIES
Several studies have documented the impor-
THE JOB OFFER tance of when recruitment activities occur. A
Three types of research have been conducted key issue with regard to scheduling is when to
concerning the job offer. Some researchers have begin recruiting. For jobs with a distinct hiring
focused on attributes of a position (e.g., loca- season, beginning to recruit late in the season
tion) that are predictive of job offer acceptance. can result in a job applicant pool that is lack-
Because this type of research was discussed pre- ing, as was demonstrated by Turban & Cable
viously in the context of job applicant decision (2003), who found that employers that began
making, it is not addressed here. The relation- interviewing college students later in the year
ship between the timeliness of a job offer and received fewer job applications. Of potentially
its being accepted also has drawn research at- greater importance, the applications received
tention. This research is addressed in the next were of lower quality. One explanation for why
section. In terms of research on the effects of it can be advantageous for an employer to be-
specic aspects of the job offer, very little re- gin the recruitment process in a timely fashion
search has been conducted. Two studies that is that individuals want to reduce the uncer-
are representative of this research are briey tainty involved in nding a job (Becker et al.
reviewed. 2010). If this explanation is accurate, one would

expect that when an employer begins recruiting In summary, there is persuasive evidence
may be less important if it is trying to recruit that delays at various stages of the recruit-
persons who are already employed. ment process can have an adverse effect on sev-
A number of studies have investigated the eral recruitment outcomes, including the num-
importance of an employer acting in a timely ber of applicants and the quality of applicants.
manner after applications have been submitted. In terms of future research, investigations of
For example, Rynes et al. (1991) documented the explanations that have been offered by re-
that delays in replying to job applicants resulted searchers for why delays matter are needed. For
in their viewing potential employers as being example, although it has been hypothesized that
less attractive and sometimes in applicants recruits make attributions about what a delay
eliminating them from consideration as a place signals (e.g., no job offer is likely to be forth-
of employment. Interestingly, these effects coming, a recruit was not the organizations rst
were stronger for higher-quality job applicants. choice for lling a job opening), data to verify
Boswell et al. (2003) also found that recruits the accuracy of such attributions are lacking.
were positively disposed toward employers

who responded to their inquiries promptly.
More recent studies also have shown the RECRUITING MEMBERS OF
importance of prompt recruitment actions. For UNDERREPRESENTED GROUPS
example, Schreurs et al. (2009) measured the In the past decade, considerable research has
time lag between a persons date of application addressed the recruitment of members of un-
and the date the person was scheduled to take derrepresented groups (e.g., racial minorities,
an employment test. They found that the women). Much of this research has focused on
longer the delay, the less likely an applicant the effects of communicating information about
was to show up for testing. Becker et al. (2010) the diversity of an employers workforce or its
investigated the inuence of a time delay on afrmative action/diversity policy. In addition
the likelihood of a job offer being accepted. to addressing research on these two topics, in
For samples of new college graduates and more this section two recent studies that have sig-
experienced individuals, the longer the time lag nicance for the recruitment of minorities and
between a job candidates nal interview and a women are reviewed. Before addressing these
job offer being extended, the less likely an offer topics, two common ndings from pre-2000 re-
was to be accepted (statistical analyses showed search merit mention. First, as previously dis-
that differences in applicant quality did not cussed, researchers (e.g., Chapman et al. 2005)
explain this time lag). Carless & Hetherington have found a recruiters race or gender to have
(2011) focused on recruitment timeliness little impact on job applicants. Second, stud-
both in terms of an objective and a subjective ies conducted in the 1980s and 1990s often
indicator. Using a sample of applicants for jobs reported that minorities were less likely to be
at a university, they measured the actual time made aware of job openings if current employ-
that elapsed between the submission of a job ees were used as a recruitment method (for a
application and an invitation for an interview, review of this research, see Peterson et al. 2000).
and they measured an applicants perception of With regard to recruitment communica-
the timeliness of this invitation. In terms of per- tions that convey information about the diver-
ceptions of organizational attractiveness, the sity of an employers workforce, several studies
number of days that had elapsed was not a valid have been conducted, most with college stu-
predictor. However, an applicants perception dents. For example, Avery et al. (2004) found
of timeliness was a good predictor of attrac- that including pictures of minorities in a re-
tiveness. Carless & Hetheringtons ndings cruitment brochure increased the ratings of
suggest that objective timeliness should not be organizational attractiveness made by blacks
the sole focus of attention in future studies. and had no impact on the ratings of whites.
408 Breaugh
Avery (2003) showed that including pictures in the other did not. In addition to being selected
a recruitment brochure had a greater impact on because of their difference on diversity cue in-
minorities if some of the minorities portrayed formation, these organizations were chosen be-
were in supervisory positions (whites were un- cause they were equivalent on other important
affected by the different portrayals of blacks). dimensions (e.g., organizational attractiveness).
In their study 1 (study 2 is discussed shortly), Approximately two weeks after viewing the
Walker et al. (2012) examined whether diver- assigned Web site, student recall of Web site
sity cues affected the way individuals processed information was assessed. Walker et al. (2012)
information. They found that in the diversity reported that recall was better for the Web site
cue condition (i.e., two of the four individuals that provided diversity-related information,
pictured were black), more time was spent view- and this effect was stronger for blacks.
ing a Web site and there was better recall of the In terms of the recruitment of minorities
information viewed than in the no-diversity cue and women, two recent studies merit attention.
condition (none of the four employees pictured Newman & Lyon (2009) investigated whether
were black). These effects were signicant for the way an organization recruits can reduce the
black and white students but stronger for blacks. conict that employers frequently face in try-
In recent years, several researchers (e.g., ing to meet the dual goals of hiring individuals
McKay & Avery 2006) have investigated who will be most productive and hiring a di-
the effects of communicating variations in verse group of individuals. The rst study they
the strength of an organizations diversity/ conducted, a simulation with college students,
afrmative action policy. For example, for examined the effects of targeting groups for re-
members of the Society of Black Engineers, cruitment based on demographic characteris-
Slaughter et al. (2005) found that, compared tics. Newman & Lyon found that such target-
to an afrmative action program geared to- ing can increase adverse impact (i.e., members
ward bringing job openings to the attention of minority groups being hired at a lower rate
of minorities, a program involving preferen- than nonminorities) because it can result in job
tial treatment was viewed as less fair and more applications from minorities who are not quali-
likely to result in the stigmatization of new ed for advertised positions. In a second study,
hires. Williamson et al. (2008) documented the Newman & Lyon (2009) examined the inu-
complexity that can be involved in designing a ence of how a job advertisement was worded.
diversity-oriented message. They reported that Specically, they assessed whether emphasizing
individuals responses to identity-conscious di- the importance of an applicant being smart or
versity policies were inuenced by their race conscientious resulted in self-selection and/or
and the explanation provided for the diver- adverse impact. These authors found that stu-
sity policy (e.g., a moral obligation versus to dents who were higher on the attribute sought
improve business results). Specically, blacks were more likely to apply for a position seeking
viewed the ideological explanation as signaling that attribute and that no adverse impact re-
they would be less likely to face discrimination, sulted. They also found that minority students
whereas whites and Asians viewed the business had a higher application rate across jobs, which
explanation as less threatening to their careers. may reect the fact that they perceived they
Walker et al.s (2012) study 2 addressed would have a harder time nding a job than
both the communication of information about would nonminority students.
the diversity of an organizations workforce The results of a series of studies by Gaucher
and its diversity policy. In this study, students et al. (2011) that focused on the wording of
were randomly assigned to visit the Web site of job advertisements raise a number of impor-
one of two actual organizations. One Web site tant issues for recruitment. In their study 1,
included pictures of a diverse workforce and Gaucher et al. analyzed actual job advertise-
information on diversity goals and initiatives; ments using an established list of masculine

and feminine words. Results showed that mas- In terms of future research, two areas seem
culine words were more common in ads for particularly important. The rst area concerns
male-dominated jobs (e.g., engineer), but fem- ways for an organization to persuade individu-
inine words were equally likely to appear in als of its commitment to diversity. Generalizing
ads for male-dominated and female-dominated from the results reported concerning awards re-
(e.g., nurse) jobs. Similar results were found ceived by an employer, it is likely that publi-
for Gaucher et al.s study 2, which involved cizing awards received from reputable sources
job postings at a university. In their study 3, for diversity-related outcomes should be bene-
these authors had students read several job ads cial, but this has yet to be demonstrated. Re-
that were constructed to be masculinely or fem- search is also needed on subtle ways by which an
ininely worded. For male-dominated, female- employer may discourage members of under-
dominated, and gender-neutral jobs, both male represented groups from applying for jobs. In
and female students perceived there were fewer this regard, Gaucher et al.s (2011) research on
women within the occupations advertised with the gendering of job advertisements provides a
more masculine wording. In their study 4, starting point.

Gaucher and her colleagues examined whether
masculine wording resulted in women having
less interest in a job because such wording sug- CONCLUDING REMARKS
gested they do not belong. Masculine wording This article provides a selective review of
was found to result in both less interest and per- research that has been conducted on employee
ceptions of not belonging in the job. Gaucher recruitment, especially studies that have been
et al.s study 5 replicated these results and ex- published since 2000. This research demon-
tended them by showing that masculine word- strates the importance of the recruitment
ing in ads did not affect womens perceptions of actions taken by employers. In particular,
their having the skill needed to perform the job. recruitment methods (e.g., using current
Taken as a whole, Gaucher et al.s results sug- employees), the recruitment message (e.g., its
gest that gendered wording is common in job specicity), recruiters (e.g., their being infor-
ads and that this wording can result in women mative), the organizational site visit (e.g., meet-
believing they do not belong in an occupation, ing with high-level employees), and the timing
but not because of a lack of skill. of recruitment activities (e.g., timely job offers)
From the research reviewed, it is apparent have been shown to be linked to important pre-
that the wording of a recruitment message can hire (e.g., quality of job applicants) and posthire
inuence the interest of minorities and nonmi- (e.g., employee retention) outcomes. In dis-
norities in a job opening. It also is apparent that cussing recruitment studies, this article noted
effectively disseminating a diversity-oriented a number of methodological limitations (e.g.,
message is a delicate issue. In concluding failure to test for mediator variables) in hopes
this review of research on the recruitment of of stimulating and improving future research.
members of underrepresented groups, two In addition, this review highlighted several
additional ndings should be noted. First, topics (e.g., attracting the attention of potential
McKay & Avery (2005) have discussed how job applicants) that have received insufcient
many minorities report that the information attention from researchers. A theme that ran
they received during the recruitment process throughout this review was the applicability
concerning diversity initiatives did not cor- of basic psychological research (e.g., ndings
respond to the reality they experienced once concerning selective exposure) to recruitment
hired. Second, in terms of the impact of a topics. Drawing more heavily on such research
diversity-oriented recruitment message, an em- is likely to improve future empirical investiga-
ployers reputation vis-a-vis diversity is likely tions of recruitment topics and future theory
to be more important (Avery & McKay 2006). development.
410 Breaugh
SUMMARY POINTS
1. An employers recruitment actions can inuence the interest of prospective job applicants
in a job opening and the ability of the individuals it hires, their diversity, their job
performance, and their retention.
2. Deciding whom to recruit is the most important question an organization needs to
address, given that the target population should inuence the recruitment method an
employer uses to reach these individuals, the recruitment message it conveys, and when
it begins recruiting.
3. Insufcient research attention has been given to the topics of targeted recruitment and
attracting the attention of prospective job applicants.

4. Research supports the use of current employees as being an effective recruitment method.
5. The wording of a recruitment message (e.g., its specicity, realism) has been linked to
several prehire and posthire recruitment outcomes.
6. In investigating recruitment issues, researchers have relied heavily on the use of college
students.
7. The ndings of basic psychological research (e.g., selective exposure, conrmation bias)
apply to many recruitment topics and should be considered in designing future studies.
FUTURE ISSUES
1. In making decisions about job openings, applicants often lack information about impor-
tant job and organizational attributes. Several researchers have suggested that applicants
use information acquired during the recruitment process as an indicator of unknown
attributes. What information received about a job or organization is likely to be used as a
signal of unknown aspects of a job opening? Under what conditions are such inferences
likely to be made?
2. At present, no general model of the recruitment process (one that addresses interactions
among recruitment variables and their relationships with job and organizational attributes
and recruitment outcomes) exists. Can such a model be developed?
3. Most researchers seem willing to assume that the results of studies using college students
will generalize to individuals with more job search and work experience. Do they?
4. Theory suggests that targeting certain types of individuals for recruitment (e.g., those
with family members working for the organization, those who have previously worked
in jobs similar to the job opening) should be benecial for an employer. Do empirical
studies support such hypothesized relationships?
5. It has been hypothesized that employee referrals tend to be more qualied applicants
and make better employees because they have received realistic job information from
the employee who referred them and because they have been prescreened by the current
employee of the organization. However, data have not been gathered from current em-
ployees concerning whether such events occurred. Do future studies support the realism
and prescreening hypotheses?

6. Very little attention has been given to the recruitment of so-called passive job seekers
(i.e., individuals who would consider taking a new job but are not actively looking for
one). What issues should be considered in recruiting such individuals?
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The author is not aware of any afliations, funding, or nancial holdings that might be perceived
as affecting the objectivity of this review.
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416 Breaugh
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Annual Review of
Psychology
Volume 64, 2013 Contents
Prefatory
Shifting Gears: Seeking New Approaches for Mind/Brain Mechanisms

Michael S. Gazzaniga p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1
Biological Bases of Behavior

The Endocannabinoid System and the Brain
Raphael Mechoulam and Linda A. Parker p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p21
Vision
Synesthesia
Jamie Ward p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p49
Scene Perception, Event Perception, Object Recognition

Visual Aesthetics and Human Preference
Stephen E. Palmer, Karen B. Schloss, and Jonathan Sammartino p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p77
Attention and Performance

Detecting Consciousness: A Unique Role for Neuroimaging
Adrian M. Owen p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 109
Executive Functions
Adele Diamond p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 135
Animal Learning and Behavior

The Neuroscience of Learning: Beyond the Hebbian Synapse
C.R. Gallistel and Louis D. Matzel p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 169
Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology: New Perspectives on Cognition
and Motivation
Leda Cosmides and John Tooby p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 201
Origins of Human Cooperation and Morality
Michael Tomasello and Amrisha Vaish p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 231
vi
Language and Communication

Gestures Role in Speaking, Learning, and Creating Language
Susan Goldin-Meadow and Martha Wagner Alibali p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 257
Nonverbal and Verbal Communication

The Antecedents and Consequences of Human Behavioral Mimicry
Tanya L. Chartrand and Jessica L. Lakin p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 285
Intergroup Relations, Stigma, Stereotyping, Prejudice, Discrimination

Sexual Prejudice
Gregory M. Herek and Kevin A. McLemore p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 309
Social Neuroscience
A Cultural Neuroscience Approach to the Biosocial Nature
of the Human Brain
Shihui Han, Georg Northoff, Kai Vogeley, Bruce E. Wexler,
Shinobu Kitayama, and Michael E.W. Varnum p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 335
Organizational Climate/Culture
Organizational Climate and Culture
Benjamin Schneider, Mark G. Ehrhart, and William H. Macey p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 361
Industrial Psychology/Human Resource Management

Employee Recruitment
James A. Breaugh p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 389
Learning and Performance in Educational Settings

Self-Regulated Learning: Beliefs, Techniques, and Illusions
Robert A. Bjork, John Dunlosky, and Nate Kornell p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 417
Teaching of Subject Matter

Student Learning: What Has Instruction Got to Do With It?
Hee Seung Lee and John R. Anderson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 445
Health Psychology
Bringing the Laboratory and Clinic to the Community: Mobile
Technologies for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
Robert M. Kaplan and Arthur A. Stone p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 471
Research Methodology
Multivariate Statistical Analyses for Neuroimaging Data
Anthony R. McIntosh and Bratislav Misic p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 499
Contents vii
Social Network Analysis: Foundations and Frontiers on Advantage

Ronald S. Burt, Martin Kilduff, and Stefano Tasselli p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 527
Indexes
Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 5464 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 549

Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 5464 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 554
Errata
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viii Contents
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3D Displays, Martin S. Banks, Davind M. Hoffman, Organization of the Central Visual Pathways Following
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PS64CH15-Breaugh ARI 11 November 2012 9:1

Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2013. 64:389416 Keywords

Contents The Use of an Employers

Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Recruitment Message . . . . . . . 404

INTRODUCTION Psychology. Therefore, for most topics, this

to job applicant perceptions of and reactions

and the Scope of This Review

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 391

that behavior relevant to an attitude will only

receiving a consistent message from multiple

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 393

a positive image of an organization (i.e., image organization as a place of employment or who

suggest that, having formed an initial opinion,

attribute is an employers reputation. Studies approach initially followed by a compensatory

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 395

they perceive good person/job-organization provided, research on four popular recruitment

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 397

information on prehire recruitment outcomes (i.e., applicant Employee Referrals

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 399

similarity between what a person sought in an attractiveness ratings of more experienced

concerning person-organization t is intrigu- site characteristics on ratings of organizational

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 401

providing t information can result in a smaller

been assumed that current employees making

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 403

Future Research Directions Taken as a whole, research suggests the type

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 405

made a favorable impression on applicants. A Utilizing a sample of college students drawn

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 407

were positively disposed toward employers

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 409

more masculine wording. In their study 4, starting point.

attracting the attention of prospective job applicants.

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 411

DT Gilbert, G. Lindzey, pp. 394427. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 413

N Anderson, O Voskuijl, pp. 4772. Malden, MA: Blackwell

www.annualreviews.org Employee Recruitment 415

Organ. Sci. 17:71023

Volume 64, 2013 Contents

Shifting Gears: Seeking New Approaches for Mind/Brain Mechanisms

Biological Bases of Behavior

Scene Perception, Event Perception, Object Recognition

Attention and Performance

Animal Learning and Behavior

Language and Communication

Nonverbal and Verbal Communication

Intergroup Relations, Stigma, Stereotyping, Prejudice, Discrimination

Industrial Psychology/Human Resource Management

Learning and Performance in Educational Settings

Teaching of Subject Matter

Social Network Analysis: Foundations and Frontiers on Advantage

Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 5464 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 549

An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Psychology articles may be found at

New From Annual Reviews:

Complimentary online access to Volume 1 will be available until September 2016.

TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR VOLUME 1:

Access all Annual Reviews journals via your institution at www.annualreviews.org.

ANNUAL REVIEWS | Connect With Our Experts

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