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 Chapter 22
The Ushnus of Condesuyos
Mariusz Zikowski

Introduction Peruvian highland region of Arequipa. During Inca times,

this Andean region was part of the Kuntisuyu, one of the
The study of ushnus discussed in this chapter was con- four quarters in which the Inca Empire (Tahuantinsuyu)
ducted in the context of the Condesuyos archaeological was divided (see Fig. 8.1) Specifically, the area under study
project.1 This research project focused on the study of high was part of a province known as Cunti or Condesuyus,2
altitude areas, most of them over 3500 m above sea level which was supposedly part of the Chiefdom (seorio) of
(masl) surrounding the snowy mountain peaks of Coropuna Condes.3
(6425 masl), Solimana (6093 masl) and Firura (5498 masl), The exact territorial boundaries of this very small
located in the provinces of Condesuyos and Castilla in the province of Condesuyos (or Chiefdom of Condes) and its
internal division, remain a subject of debate among special-
__ CUSCO ists (Fig. 22.1). Marti Prssinen has presented a model of
- - - Boundary of Condesuyu
/' \ these boundaries,4 while Catherine Julien offers a different
---- Boundaries of Conde and Collagua,l \
,I \ one that is more detailed in terms of internal divisions. The
/
/ '
\,
latter is based on different types of colonial documents
/ \, and, particularly, on the limits of the parish and captain-
, \
,/ '
\ cies established by Viceroy Toledo.5 Julien argues that
,/ '\
these boundaries correspond more closely to prehispanic
,I \
,I \ political-territorial divisions than those of administrative
/
/
/--- --- '
\ jurisdictions (corregimientos) (Julien 1991: 113).6
;;./ --'- \ What follows is a comparison of this ethnohistorical
/~1 : ............ _ _ \
// ,I CONDE : ----_ \ information with archaeological evidence, especially the
Lake
Parinacocha // ,I : '~, presence in particular places of the ushnu-plaza combina-
l ,I I \ "
tion (and kallanka), symbols of imperial power.
\l / ',CONDESUYOS
!
I
\ \
, I
One of the most interesting aspects of past fieldwork
i" " COLLAGUA I I seasons of the Condesuyos project has been the identifica-
, ',I /' /
/ '.... / I I tion of a number of sites with very strong Inca influence
,
i '........ 'v // I /
'/ in elements such as architecture and urbanism.7 Together
/ """ /1 with other sites that were already mentioned in the related
I literature,8 and that have also been studied by the project,
I .... / '

I ' . ,
'-" ... ' i
-- Arequipa
I
16 Inca settlements are identified in the area. Most of them
.Camana
i are located in a relatively restricted area, west and south
i of Nevado Coropuna (Fig. 22.2) and there are another
j
Pacific Ocean
//-~- three in the eastern and southern slopes of the Solimana
; mountain. If we add to these other similar sites that have
been studied in the context of other research projects
100 km
located in the neighbouring valleys of Cotahuasi, Andaray,
Figure 22.1 Map of Condesuyos (adapted from Julien 1991 and Prssinen Pampacolca and Chuquibamba, there are least 31 sites
1992: 363). with strong Inca influence in this region. A complex of

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 M A R I U S Z Z I KO W S K I
Figure 22.2 Map of ushnu sites studied in the Condesuyos project.
a plaza and platform, that can be considered an ushnu,
can be identified in seven of the sites, while another four
settlements have plazas with ceremonial characteristics.
In these cases platforms probably existed, but this cannot
be established with certainty.9
This high concentration of similar sites clearly shows
the importance that the region had in the Inca administra-
tion. As a result of this importance, the function of these
sites deserves a detailed study. There has been significant
discussion of the symbolism and role of ushnus across the
Tahuantinsuyu (see, for example, Zuidema 1989a [1980];
Meddens 1997; Staller 2008; Pino Matos 2010; Acuto
2012), so I will not focus on this here. Instead, in the rest
of the chapter I will concentrate on the formal platform-
plaza aspect, following the definition of ushnu proposed by
Frank Meddens (1997) without getting involved in the role
and symbolism of these platforms across Tahuantinsuyu.
To identify a structure as an ushnu, I do not consider the
presence of tangible features of a system for ritual libations
(stone basin, channels, etc) to be necessary as postulated
by Tom Zuidema (Zuidema 1989a [1980]; this volume).
This is because, as clearly demonstrated by a drawing of
Guaman Poma de Ayala (Plate 22.1), such offerings could
be made in portable artefacts (containers).
246
ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 246
Inca settlements with ushnu structures
The archaeological evidence that shows Inca presence in
the area under study is mainly architectural and urban, and
can be classified into three general groups, or networks,
according to the location and function of the sites. Network
I includes the sites located in high altitude areas known as
puna, or in the higher parts of neighbouring areas known as
quichwa. This network basically corresponds to the south-
ern and western slopes of Coropuna, and to the eastern
and southern slopes of the Solimana mountain. We assume
that some of these settlements had a ceremonial function
related to the worship of those sacred mountains, while
others clearly played an important economic role associ-
ated with livestock breeding. Network II includes the sites
that are located in valleys, below 3700/3800 masl. Among
them, those of the Cotahuasi, Pampacolca, Chuquibamba
and Andaray valleys are particularly important.10 A clear dif-
ference from Network I is Network IIs marked relationship
with terraced agriculture. Finally, the so-called Network
III basically corresponds to sites located in plateau areas
(above 4500 masl) north and northeast of Coropuna. This
network is related to the Inca road system that connected
the region with Cusco.11
12/03/2014 16:06

Plate 22.1 Guayna Capac, Inca with (Pedro de) Candia, one of the first Spaniards in Peru. The text
states: Cay curitacho micunqui? (Do you eat this gold?)Este oro comemos (We eat this gold)
(Guaman Poma (1936 [15831615]: 369).
As noted earlier, the most striking aspect of the region
under study, in terms of Inca presence and administration, is
the remarkable number of sites that present the ushnu-plaza
combination. I will now offer a brief review of these sites
starting with those from Network I, which stand out for
their number and size.
Network I sites
There are at least five (or sevensee Table 22.1) sites with
ceremonial plazas with ushnus. The sizes of these plat-
forms and plazas vary significantly from each other, and
these differences seem to reflect, among other factors, the
ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 247
T H E U S H N U S O F C O N D E S U YO S
different hierarchies of their respective sites within the Inca
administration of the region. Some of them deserve a more
detailed description.
Acchaymarca12
The archaeological site of Acchaymarca (at 4000 masl)
contains approximately 280 architectural stone structures,
most of which are grouped to the west of the main plaza,
which is irregular in form and measures approximately
94.15 89.90 m, surrounded by a wall made of stones
without mortar (Fig. 22.3). Part of the surrounding wall has
collapsed and, at the southeast end, there are two jambs
that served to access another smaller plaza, where there
are several structures including a kallanka (a rectangular
structure with several doors).
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 M A R I U S Z Z I KO W S K I

Table 22.1 List of archaeological sites in the Seorio de Conde with an ushnu-plaza complex.
Site Ushnu dimensions Ushnu height No. of steps Plaza No. of structures Altitude
(m) (m) (m) on site (masl)
Acchaymarca 8.76 6.98 2.86 2 94.15 89.9 c.280 4000
Ajocancha Rock c. 2.0 Yes, but exact c.10 5000
dimensions
unavailable
Huancarcota 5.55 3.30 0.70 2 Yes, but exact 8 (in the Inca 4000
dimensions sector)
unavailable
Huillcacocha 13.5 3.0 1.2 1 No No structure 4500
closer than 0.5
km
Itac c.8.0 4.0 Not known 1 118 200 > 50 (no exact 3200
data)
Maucallacta/ 8.50 6.0 1.0 1 138 70 c.250 3700
Pampacolca
Maucallacta/ 6.25 3.0 Not known Not known c.0.8 ha c.60 (without 3800
Puica (Jennings 2002) chullpas)
Minticocha Rock c.2.0 N/A 60 25 c.20 4760
Muyu Muyu 13.2 2.4 c.1.0 1? 75 41 > 10 estimated 3260
Siulica 7.0 3.0 0.3 1 27.2 17.4 47 3900
Tompullo 2 3.0 3.0 0.3 1? 47 32 c.70 (without 4000
chullpas)

The ceremonial ushnu platform is located in the centre
of the southeast side of the main plaza (Plate 22.2). The
structure is rectangular and built with fine carved stones in
the style of the imperial Inca masonry. It measures 6.98 m
long (on the north and south sides) and 8.76 m wide (on the
east and west sides). The platform is located at a distance
of 3.3 m from the squares wall, and it has two levels: the
first 1.75 m high and the second made up of a wall 0.90 m
high, built with cut stone. Together, both levels are 2.86 m
high, while the total surface of the structure is 61.32 m2.
Attached to the central part of the platform is a staircase
of five steps that leads to the first level, which is 3.58 m
long and 1.97 m wide (Presbtero Rodrguez 2005: 3378.
To this brief description provided by the archaeologist
Gonzalo Presbtero Rodrguez, who has been at the fore-
front of work on this platform, some details can be added.
First, in the plaza there is evidence of a circular structure
encircled by finely worked stones, which looks like a kind
of well. Secondly, from this ushnu it is possible to observe
both the Coropuna and Solimana mountains, even though
the platform is not oriented towards them. Possible reasons
for this are discussed in Zikowski 2008.
Maucallacta (Pampacolca)13
The site of Maucallacta (at 3700 masl) is located on
a terrace, above the village of San Antonio (district of
Pampacolca, province of Castilla, Arequipa region) and
the surrounding valley. The site covers an area of at least
30 ha14 that contains about 250 stone structures, most with
monumental features (Fig. 22.4). The site is elevated on a
terrace that overlooks the surrounding valley.
The western end of the site is defined by a monumental
platform about 160 m long, 50 m wide and 7 m high.
Next to this platform is a hill with a pyramid built on
top (Presbtero et al. 2001). The construction technique
(of stones without mortar) of the monumental platform,
and other evidence,15 seems to indicate a Pre-Inca origin.
However, parts of the structure, especially the floor of the
platform, have been rebuilt or renovated later by the Incas,
after the incorporation of this territory into Tahuantinsuyu.
The remains of an ushnu have been found at the edge of
the grand platform, about halfway along its length (Plate
22.3). This

is a structure of approximately 8.5 m long, 6 m

Figure 22.3 Plan of Acchaymarca (drawn by Jacek Kociuk based on
photographs by Maciej Somczyski).
wide, and quite low (the preserved height measures
between 60 cm and 1 m). The longest side is oriented
in the direction of the monumental grand platform
(south-east). The highest part is reached by a four-step
staircase built with perpendicular stone blocks. The
stones of the ushnus walls are carved with a precision
that is unmatched in the whole site, particularly those

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 T H E U S H N U S O F C O N D E S U YO S

Plate 22.2 Ushnu platform at Acchaymarca (photo Proyecto Condesuyos).

Figure 22.4 Plan of Maucallacta.

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 M A R I U S Z Z I KO W S K I
Plate 22.3 Ushnu platform at Maucallacta (photo Proyecto Condesuyos).
of the faade, which show a type of imperial Inca
masonry characterised by rectangular, medium-sized
(2030 cm), and well cut stones. These kinds of stones
were probably brought from a puna plateau that is
10 km southwest of Maucallacta, as they cannot be
found around the site. Near the southern corner of
the ushnu, we found a type of pavement of small
stones covered by clear evidence of ashes and pottery
shards, which looked like incomplete remains of an
offering (Woloszyn et al. 2010: 201).
The cleaning of the faade of the structure that is located
just below the ushnu clarified that these remains were ves-
tiges of burnt offerings. Janusz Woloszyn et al. (2010: 21)
observe that,
After removing the brushwood and all the materials
that were below the ushnu, we discovered what
was expected: a landfill. Indeed, there were two
huge conical mounds accumulated underneath the
ushnu with ashes from the offerings that had been
performed some seven metres above, probably across
the entire place.
Figure 22.5 Plan of Tompullo 2 (drawn by Jacek Kociuk based on photographs by Maciej Somczyski).
250
ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 250
Tompullo 2
The site of Tompullo 2 is located on the northern slope of
a hill that goes by the name of Cora Cora, also known as
Pavellones, at 4000 masl. The site covers an area of around
5 ha and contains 46 rectangular and 25 circular structures,
which can be divided into four sectors according to archi-
tectural criteria: A, B, C and D (Fig. 22.5).
The B sector includes the central part of the site and
contains the two constructions that have led to Tompulo
II being considered as an administrative and ceremonial
centre.The first is a kallanka-type building of 30 m long
with three doors, which is located facing a plaza in the
western sector. The second, some 9 m away from the north
side of the kallanka, was probably a small ushnu or cere-
monial platform of which only some traces remain (Plate
22.4). The platform is quadrangular with sides of 3m, and
its external wall is built with a double row of stones of much
better quality than those used inside. Two large stones have
been preserved in the centre of the structure, which could
have been part of other elements. Two surveys conducted
in the ushnu, one inside and the other outside, resulted in
the discovery of 18 pieces of pottery of which only one
has been identified, classified as a local imitation of the
imperial style (local Inca) (Buda 2005: 2534).
Huancarcota
This site is located on a plateau, at around 4000 masl,
east of Quimsa Huanca and near the village of Tualqui,
in the district of Pampacolca. The site is divided into three
sectors of which the northern one (sector A) is of par-
ticular importance for this study. The main feature of this
sector is a large plaza surrounded by a retaining wall,
which has a southnorth orientation and is built over an
embankment. At the southwest end of the plaza there
are archaeological remains of a quadrangular platform
of two levels, with a current height of 0.7 m. The lower
level is 5.55 m long (north and south sides) and 3.30 m
wide (east and west sides). The position of the platform,
12/03/2014 16:06

Plate 22.4 Remains of ceremonial platform at Tompullo 2 (photo Proyecto Condesuyos).
facing the square, and its structure allow us to consider
it an ushnu. The west side of this ushnu has been much
altered by a recently built irrigation channel; access was
apparently on the east side.
Some tens of metres west from the irrigation channel are
two structures surrounded by a quadrangular wall. These
structures are also quadrangular and their stone walls are
made with mortar. Their respective dimensions are 17.20m
long and 5.70 m wide, and 12.75 m long and 5.40 m wide.
The level of destruction of the walls does not allow us to
identify the exact location of the doors. It is likely that the
two structures had a common courtyard between them,
constituting a kind of kancha. Further south is a kancha
with six middle-sized constructions (5.506.30 m long
and 3.503.95 m wide), occupying three sides of a slightly
trapezoidal courtyard of approximately 12.80 (12.28)
12.60 m, with its northwest side free of constructions. The
two remaining sectors that make up this site do not present
evidence of Inca architecture, being separated from the
other sector by wide open spaces without constructions.
Minticocha
This site is located on the southeastern slopes of the
Solimana volcano, near an eponymous lake, at around
4750 masl. It is notable for the presence of a ceremonial
plaza of 60 m long (north and east sides) and 25 m wide
(east and west sides), which is surrounded by a wall made
up of big stones without mortar. On the west side of the
plaza, there are the remains of a rectangular building
26.60m long and 6.25 m wide, which has four doors on
the wall that faces the square. These features allow us to
classify this building as a kallanka (Fig. 22.6). Almost adja-
cent to it, on the south side, there is a natural rock that
has been transformed into a kind of platform by building
ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 251
T H E U S H N U S O F C O N D E S U YO S
two small terraces with a single row of stones. In front of
the rock, on a side of the plaza, there is also a landslide of
rocks that were possibly part of an access ramp (Plate 22.5,
A and B). Considering the location of the rock, in front of
the square and next to the kallanka, it can be concluded
that it is a type of ushnu or platform for ceremonial uses.
At a distance of approximately 500 m to the northeast,
on the border of a kind of plaza, there is another platform
attached to a natural rock, with the height of a single row
of stones and surrounded by a low wall made up of a
single line of stones. Both platforms are inter-visible, but
the second one shows no clear association to the phase
of Inca occupation so it has not been included even
tentativelyin our list of ushnus.
To conclude the analysis of Network I, I will briefly
discuss two sites where the presence of an ushnu-plaza
complex seems quite likely, even though there are still
doubts about the nature of the localised structures in the
case of Ajocancha, or about their chronology in the case
of Siulica.
Ajocancha
Discovered in 1989 by Jos Antonio Chavez and Johan
Reinhard, this ceremonial site is located in the upper part of
an eponymous ravine, on the western slopes of Coropuna,
at 5000 masl. Members of the Condesuyos project visited
the site several times, registering and photographically
documenting surface materials, but without undertaking
more extensive work.
The site presents a plaza whose west side rests on a
prominent rock. Attached to this rock is a pile of uncut
stones, which may be the remains of some kind of platform
or staircase (Plate 22.6, A and B). The plaza is partially
surrounded by a collapsed wall of stones without mortar.
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 M A R I U S Z Z I KO W S K I
Figure 22.6 Plan of Minticocha. Note: the circled feature is natural rock,
possibly an ushnu.
Plate 22.5 Possible remains of an ushnu, Minticocha. A: General view
of the natural rock with the landslide of stones possible remains of an
access ramp or stairway. B: Two small terraces built with a simple row of
stones on the top of the natural rock (photos Proyecto Condesuyos).
There are also remains of half a dozen rectangular struc-
tures around the plaza. Fragments of ceramic appear on the
surface, particularly around the structures.
Although the level of intervention of Inca officials in the
layout, construction and subsequent functioning of the site
is not clearly demonstrated, it can be hypothetically postu-
lated that Ajocancha was a settlement dedicated to ritual
activities that had an ushnu-plaza complex. According to
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Plate 22.6 Possible remains of an ushnu, Ajocancha. A: General view
of the natural rock with the landslide of stones possible remains of an
access ramp or stairway. B: A kind of chair (carved? natural?) on the top
of natural rock (photos Proyecto Condesuyos).
Reinhard and Chavez, in Inca times the site could have
served as a stopping place for ceremonial officials on their
way to the top of the Coropuna mountain (Reinhard 2002b).
Siulica
The site of Siulica (also known as Pucara Siulica or
Siu Huillca) is located at around 3900 masl, between
the small ravine of Huayllachane and the eastern slopes
of a nearby hill, within the limits of the district of Andaray,
Condesuyos province. The site was found by members
of the Condesuyos project in August 1999, thanks to the
information provided by a resident of the nearby village
of Tompullo. The site includes 47 quadrangular buildings
scattered over an area of approximately 11 ha, as well as
some terraces and walls that are located mainly in its west
side, on the hillside.
The buildings complex, which is divided into five well-
defined sectors, probably had residential and ceremonial
functions.16 The central sector, called C, is a non-uniform
quadrangular area whose main feature is that it is located in
an elevated esplanade, like an islet, that is separated from
the other sectors by a stream channel.
At the perimeter of the site there are the remains of
a rustic stone wall without mortar, which has totally col-
lapsed leaving only a line or two of stones with an average
height of 0.22 m. This wall delimits a plaza with three main
elements (Fig. 22.7) First, on the southeast side, attached
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 T H E U S H N U S O F C O N D E S U YO S

to the perimeter wall, there is a quadrangular platform of

approximately 7 m long (north and south sides), 3 m wide
(east and west sides), and 30 cm high. The structure is much
deteriorated, but two or three badly defined staircase steps
on the front side facing the plaza are still identifiable. At the
back, the platform protrudes approximately 12 cm above
the perimeter wall. These features allow us to tentatively
identify this structure as a small ushnu.
Secondly, almost exactly at the geometric centre of
the plaza, there is a semi-square structure of 1.50 m long,
1.52m wide and just 0.05 m high, like a pavement or a
very low platform. It seems likely that this platform (or pave-
ment) served as basis for a cylindrical stone (huanca) that
was allegedly moved by members of the nearby community
a few years ago to be placed inside the water reservoir that
was then built on the southeast end of the site.17
Finally, near the northwest wall of the plaza is a building
known as the chapel (capilla). This structure is 10.92 m
long and 6.34 m wide, and its long axis has an eastwest
orientation with a deviation of approximately 10 degrees to
the northwest. In front of the structure, facing the square,
there is a door of 0.90 m wide whose jambs, consisting of
monolithic units, have been preserved on both sides of the
wall. In front of the door, attached to the structures wall,
there is a platform 8.00 m long and 3.03 m wide. In the west
wall of the building, there are also remains of a window. The
walls are preserved to an average height of 1.20 m, with the
east wall being the best preserved, with an average height
of 1.87 m. The survey work carried out inside the building
shows that it was used as a chapel in colonial times. Is it
possible that this construction was built after the Spanish
conquest using traditional Inca techniques but intended to
meet the needs of the new cult? Or is it this a re-adaptation
of an Inca building? In any case, it seems that the perimeter Figure 22.7 Plan of Siulica.
wall of the plaza, the platform on its southeast side, and
constructions in the remaining sectors, are all prehispanic
(for further details see Zilkowski et al. 2005b). about the valley of Chuquibamba, which at that time
was called Itagua after its main settlement (known today
as Itac) (Zilkowski 2005). This valley was also one of
the first areas studied archaeologically in the region
(from the 1930s). However, unfortunately, the evidence
Network II and remains of Inca architecture are relatively limited
in the valley due to significant damage to the sites. The
We found evidence of three sites with the ushnu-plaza researcher Augusto Cardona Rosas was able to visit and
complex in this network, including those of Itac in the study the valley in the early 1990s. His work at this site is,
valley of Chuquibamba, and Maulkallacta of Puica in the to our knowledge, unpublished and little known despite
valley of Cotahuasi. Remains of a third platform that might its importance. Here we present large fragments of the
have been an ushnu were also found in the recently inves- descriptions he made.
tigated site of Muyu Muyu (Chichas district). On the other The site of Itac (Itagua) extends for 1 km from north to
hand the lack of clear evidence of ushnus in the valley of south and 600 m from east to west. It occupies a plateau
Andaray is surprising although their possible existence in area located at the top of Pea Blanca at approximately
Ccopn (Andaray district) cannot be ruled out. This issue 3200 masl. According to Cardona Rosas (1992: 63, 70),
is addressed in the final part of the chapter. it is named after a nearby small spring that maintains the
current limit of agricultural production (around 3,200 masl)
close to the ancient limit (around 3,500 masl).
Itac Cardona Rosas observes that,
As a result of the documents on the allocation of land
grants (encomiendas) made in 1540 by Francisco Pizarro, The settlement has been entirely built using
we have early (although brief) ethnohistorical information volcanic tuff as the main element, as this material is

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 M A R I U S Z Z I KO W S K I
Figure 22.8 Plan of Muyu Muyu.
abundant in the area. The construction of the walls
has several variations, although the main technique
is ordinary masonry without mortar, forming
double lines (the irregular masonry has not been
studied). We also find the characteristic polygonal
work of Inca almohadillado, noting that it has not
been polished, and that mortar has been used for
bonding the elements. Finally, we also find dry
masonry wallsThe configuration of the site shows
evidence of different types of constructions, such as
plazas, courtyards, kallankas terraces, chullpas,
and domestic units that we have divided between
common and residential.
The main plaza is 200 m long, and 118 m wide, and it
is located in the eastern part of the site. To the south of
the plaza are large circular administrative buildings,
which are the best preserved. In the centre of these
buildings there are two known Inca kallankas, with
remains of a chulpa and an ushnu in front of each
of them. On the west side of the plaza there are
also the remains of a kallanka-type building and the
foundations of another to the west.
North of the square, there is a platform to which it
is possible to ascend through graderos. East of this
platform is a residential area with larger and more
ordered domestic spaces, and more elaborate stone
walls (of polygonal style) (Cardona Rosas 1992:
63 ff.).
The author does not directly provide the measurements of
the ushnu. However, on the basis of his published sche-
matic plan, we estimate that it was 57 m long and 4 m
wide.
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ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 254
Maulkallacta of Puica18
The site of Maulkallacta is located near the contemporary
town of Puica, in the upper part of the Cotahuasi Valley, at
3800 masl. It occupies an area of some 7.5 ha on a plateau
located above the point where the rivers Huarcaya and
Sumana converge. The site was an important administrative
and ceremonial centre on the Inca road between Cusco and
the coastal valley of Chala. The settlement is divided into
three sectors, of which the most relevant for our subject of
study is the southernmost, sector C, which contains a large
plaza of approximately 0.8 ha. The east side of the plaza
is bordered by a long structure with three doors of some
40 m long which, although badly damaged, is clearly a
kallanka. On the opposite western side of the plaza, there
are severely deteriorated remains of a rectangular platform,
with only a line of stones left. In his PhD dissertation Justin
Jennings does not provide the dimensions of this structure,
which he rightly identified as an ushnu (Jennings 2002:
492, 4956). However, these dimensions can be estimated
as about 6.25 m long and 3 m wide.19
Muyu Muyu (district of Chichas)
The complex known as Muyu Muyu is located on the
southern slopes of Solimana, more precisely at the bottom
of an ancient volcanic caldera, at about 3260 masl. The
archaeological site is located above a series of agricultural
terraces, which are erected over a natural embankment that
dominates the northern side of the contemporary village
of Yanque.
The main structure of this site after which it is named is
an oval construction with two overlapping levels (Fig. 22.8).
The lower level, measuring c.76.5 47.5 m, is surrounded
by a wall that is 4.20 m high in the better preserved parts
of the north side, which overlooks a plaza. The upper level
12/03/2014 16:06

is 23.8 22.4 m and 3 m high, with a more quadrangular
shape. The northern side is straight while the rest of the
perimeter is oval, even though the collapse of large parts
of the wall, and the abundant vegetation that covers the
entire platforms surface, makes it difficult to see. The
perimeter walls of both levels are built with carved stones,
fitted together well with clay mortar. On top of the first and
second levels there are four or five quadrangular structures,
although the dense vegetation prevented us from determin-
ing their exact number. The highest one is about 11.2 9m
wide, and is made of carved stones.
In front of the northern side of the big oval structure is a
plaza of approximately 75 41 m, which is delimited on
its northern side by the remains of a rectangular platform
13.20 m long, 2.40 m wide, and approximately 1 m high
in its preserved parts. Although deteriorated, this platform
presents evidence of a high quality construction made with
finely carved stones. Some of these stones have been put on
top of the platform by members of the nearby community
of Yanque, to build a kind of throne that they call the the
Incas chair (la silla del Inca). The quality of these remains to one or more kallankas. Following on from this, ushnus
allows us to advance the hypothesis that this structure
was an ushnu or altar. Approximately in the centre of the
space that separates the supposed ushnu from the big oval
structure, it is possible to see the upper part of a pointed
and white stone.
At the back of the ushnu is a series of terraces. The wall of
the lower one is built with carved stones and has a door that
it is now covered by a rustic wall. This door was the original
access to the top of the hill, where there is a rock that the
locals call Llactayuq Rumi, which was reached through a
series of passages. This rock seems partially carved.
Network III
Finally, we also noticed the possible presence of an ushnu
platform in Network III, even though this one is not associ-
ated with a plaza but located next to the main Inca road
(Capac an), near the aforementioned site of Huillcacocha
and the eponymous lake.
Huillcacocha
The site was found by members of the Condesuyos project
in 2003,20 near the lagoon Huillcacocha, at about 4500
masl. Unfortunately, the site was partially damaged by a
modest modern settlement established within the ancient
architectural complex, which includes at least 50 struc-
tures and a ceremonial square with remains of what could
have been a kallanka. At a distance of about 500 m from
the settlement, before reaching the lagoon, there are two
platforms of approximately 6.30 m long, 4 m wide and
some 1.20 m high, which seem to be located at both sides
of an old road. On the northern bank of the lagoon, where
there is a plaza-like flat terrain, there are the remains of
another rectangular platform, approximately 13.50 3 m
ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 255
T H E U S H N U S O F C O N D E S U YO S
and 1.20 m high. This platform has a staircase on one of its
shorter sides and the much deteriorated remains of another
staircase on one of its longer sides These characteristics
suggest that this platform may also have been an ushnu.
Huillcacocha occupied a strategic position in the Inca road
system because it was the point where the road from Cusco
was apparently divided into (at least) three branches.
Discussion
Having outlined the characteristics of the ushnus of
Condesuyos in this section, I now seek to develop arguments
linking to the themes of this volume about the location,
function and meanings of ushnu platforms. These structures
present enormous variability both in their dimensions and
construction quality, although there is a constant ushnu-
plaza association, which in most cases can be extended
can be directly associated with ceremonial and residen-
tial settlements. With the exception of the unclear cases of
Ajocancha and Huillcacocha analysed above, in this region
we do not find isolated ushnus such as those investigated by
the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) Ushnus
project in the region of Ayacucho (Meddens et al. 2008,
2010; Vivanco Pomacanchari, this volume; Meddens, this
volume; Branch et al., this volume; McEwan, this volume).
Another difference between the ushnus from Ayacucho and
those from Condesuyos is that the former are built mainly
on hilltops and mountain crests, while the latter tend to be
on hillsides and sloped terrains.
Within the ushnus identified in Condesuyos, there are no
cases such as that of Hunuco Pampa, where the platform
is located in the middle of a large plain, with unobstructed
views in all directions and to the horizon (Pino Matos
2004b). However, there is a relatively high number of the
ushnu-plaza complexes in the whole area, although they
are particularly abundant in high places (above 3700 masl).
While we found three cases in valleys, where population
density is higher today and undoubtedly also in prehispanic
times, we found five and probably seven cases in the puna.
Inter-visibility analysis
Notwithstanding the absence of isolated ushnus of the
Ayacucho type, we proceeded to analyse the inter-visibility
of the ushnus in our area of study as this is such a char-
acteristic feature in those from Ayacucho. The analysis
was conducted by Andrzej Rokoszewski using an ArcGis
program (Rokoszewski 2012). Due to the availability of
precise data on location and characteristics, seven of the
eleven sites were included in the analysis: Acchaymarca,
Huancarcota, Itac, Maucallacta (Pampacolca) Minticocha,
Muyu Muyu and Tompullo 2 (see Table 22.1). Sites were
excluded from the analysis for a number of reasons:
Huillcacocha is too far away from the others; Siulica is
located within relatively steep valley slopes, where the
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Figure 22.9 Viewshed analysis.
visual horizon does not exceed the nearest hills; the iden-
tification of Ajocancha as an ushnu is not clear; and there
was a lack of accurate GPS location data for Maulkallakta
of Puica.
The results of the analysis are presented in Figure 22.9.
It is noted that none of the studied ushnus is visible from
another. Those that are closest to being inter-visible are
the ushnus of Maucallacta (Pampacolca) and Huancarcota,
although it would be necessary to ascend the hill that is
southwest of the former ushnu to see the latter. Nevertheless,
it is of note that these two sites share a wider common
visual perspective than any others.
Among the other analysed ushnus, the most remote is
that in Itac from which it is not even possible to see the
Solimana and Coropuna mountains, having a relatively
restricted visibility. As for the remaining four structures, it is
noteworthy that their locations allow the observation of the
Solimana (from Muyu Muyu) or Coropuna (from Tompullo
2) mountains, or of both mountains (from Acchaymarca
and Minticocha).
In conclusion, it appears that neither inter-visibility
nor the arc of visibility were factors that determined
or influenced the choice of locations of the ushnus of
Condesuyos (Rokoszewski 2012). This means that they
could not fulfil the same or a similar function to those of
the Ayacucho type (Meddens et al. 2008; Branch et al., this
volume; Vivanco Pomacanchari, this volume). Therefore we
have to address a key question: how can we explain the
256
ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 256
concentration of these buildings in the area studied by the
Condesuyos project?
The possible administrative function and
hierarchy of the ushnus
There is no doubt that the presence of an ushnu can be
considered as a defining feature of the administrative and
ceremonial function of a given settlement within the impe-
rial organisation of the Incas. Comparing the location of
sites with ushnus, with the supposed political and territorial
subdivisions (curacazgos) of the Condesuyos territory pro-
posed by Julien, we can attribute the role of administrative
centre or capital (cabecera) to five of these settlements:
Acchaymarca seems to have been the administrative centre
of the Yachanquillo/Achamarca territory (Julien 1991:
118); Maucallacta of the Pampacolca territory; Itac (Itagua)
of the Chuquibamba territory; and Maulkallacta of Puica for
the Alca/Cotahuaci/Achambi territory (Julien 1991: 118).
The Ccopn-La Joya complex probably played a similar
role for the territorial-ethnic entity of the Arones, who
resided in the valleys of Andaray and Yanaquigua and are
not included in Juliens proposed subdivisions. It is note-
worthy that no traits of ushnu have been found in this site.
Possible reasons for this will be discussed later.
There is a group of four sitesHuancarcota, Tompullo
2, Siulica 1 and Minticochathat cannot be linked with
certainty to any political-territorial entity known to date.
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The case of Minticocha is quite special in this context
because, as a result of its location in the upper part of the
slopes of the Solimana mountain (at 4760 masl), we can
safely attribute an eminently ceremonial function to it as a
site that was probably used only at certain times of the year
(see Zikowski and Sobczyk 2005a; Zikowski 2008).
In the cases of the remaining three ushnusHuancarcota,
Siulica and Tompullo 2it is remarkable that they are all
very small, even tiny in the case of Tompullo 2 (3 m long
and wide, and 30 cm high). It is difficult to believe that such
modest structures, both in terms of quality and size, could
have been built under the supervision and by direct order
of imperial officials. As a result, we are inclined to consider
that these buildings could have been built by local peoples
on their own initiative, as an expression of their political
ambitions. In this regard, it is significant that the three sites
under consideration have a marked residential character,
besides being located relatively close to larger and more
important centres that have ushnu-plaza complexes.
Siulica 1 and Tompullo 2 are just an hours walk from
each other, and both are also just a few hours away from
the site of Itac, in the valley of Chuquibamba. Huancarcota
is a few hours walk from Maucallacta (of Pampacolca).
Therefore, how can we interpret the presence of a mini-
ushnu so close to a ceremonial and administrative centre
that has a similar, but much more impressive, construction,
and a much higher rank within Inca administration? As
a hypothetical explanation, we suggest that these three
sites could have been mitimaes settlements. The presence
of these settlers (mitimaes or mitmaqkuna) in the area,
relocated from other parts of the empire for different
purposes, is reported by Guillermo Galdos (1993: 223).
Their presence probably contributed to the complex-
ity of the socio-political organisation of the Condesuyos
region. The presence of ushnus in settlements occupied
by different ethnic groups could reflect the hierarchy to
which each group aspired, and emphasise its independence
from neighbouring groups, without having many practical
consequences for the Inca administration.
The larger sites, located between the lower valleys and
the high puna, were undoubtedly much more important
for the Incas, for example, Maucallacta in the upper part
of the Pampacolca valley and Acchaymarca on the edge
of the river Arma canyon, just above an important set of
agricultural terraces. Even Itac, although it is at a lower
altitude (only 3200 masl) presents similar characteristics to
the previous sites, being located above a set of agricultural
terraces and having direct access to the puna. Muyu Muyu
also presents some similarities as it is located at 3260 masl
and in direct relation to a main road towards the puna.
This suggests that such sites served to control extensive ter-
ritories that included both the puna and temperate valleys
(quichwa), and their different ecosystems.
Finally, I wish to address the issue of the apparent
absence of ushnu characteristics in sites with undoubted
and very obvious construction activity during the Inca
Empire, particularly in the complexes of CcopnLa Joya
in the valley of Andaray and Pucuncho, and Maucallacta,
in a puna area located at the foot of the northern slopes of
ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 257
T H E U S H N U S O F C O N D E S U YO S
Coropuna. In the latter, the absence of traces of an ushnu
can be explained by, among other reasons, the deterioration
that this architectural complex has suffered in recent years,
particularly as a result of the establishment of the modern
settlement of Pucuncho within its perimeter.
However, the lack of ushnu traces in Ccopn is some-
what surprisingthis site is relatively well preserved and
exhibits the highest degree of intervention by Inca builders
of all the sites investigated by the Condesuyos project. As an
example of this intervention, the site includes a monumen-
tal tomb with finely carved stone walls in the Cusco style,
and a 51m long kallanka also made with carved stones,
which is located on one side of a large plaza.21
A possible explanation for this absence could be
that some of the sites buildings were being built at the
time of Spanish conquest, which would have halted the
construction of these symbols of imperial power. This phen-
omenon has been evidenced in sites such as Maucallacta
of Pampacolca, where a survey carried out inside the
ushnu showed that, judging by the layout of the found-
ations and other features, the structure was in the process
of construction or remodelling that was never finished. In
Ccopn, a similar situation seems to have occurred with the
monumental kallanka and, according to Cardona Rosass
descriptions, it appears obvious that this was also the case
with one of the kallankas in Itac (Cardona Rosas 1992).
Therefore, it is possible that the Spanish invasion was the
direct cause of the abandonment of several ambitious urban
projects in the area, including the construction of an ushnu
in Ccopns main plaza. Some worn stone elements that
were found in the centre of the plaza could be the last
traces of such a project.
Nevertheless, there is also another possible explana-
tion that is complementary, rather than alternative, to that
offered above: the platform-like monumental tomb found
in Ccopn could also have been used as a kind of ushnu.
This possibility deserves more detailed attention.
The tomb-platforms
Three structures have been found in the region under
study that, as a peculiar feature, seem to have fulfilled
the combined functions of tomb (or mausoleum) and cere-
monial platform. This dual function is particularly clear
in the case of the Huaycha site, where there are remains
of a quadrangular platform in a large square surrounded
by a wall, which is located on the flattened top of the
mountain that names the site (between 3824 and approxi-
mately 3600 masl). The platform is 12 m long, 8 m wide
and almost 2 m high in the preserved parts. Although
the structure is deteriorated, it is possible to distinguish
two levels and an access staircase on the short west side
(Figure 22.10). The upper level is surrounded by a wall
made with two stone lines and underneath the surface is
a chamber of some 7 m long, 1 m wide and 1.3 m high
in which there is evidence of human bone residues. The
ceramic materials collected in the platforms and around
the square allow us to date the site to the transitional
period between the Late Intermediate Period and Late
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 M A R I U S Z Z I KO W S K I
Figure 22.10 A: Plan of Huaycha. B: Chullpa at Huaycha ( Proyecto
Condesuyos)
Horizons (Zikowski and Sobczyk 2005b: 2356). It is
noteworthy that the platform has excellent vistas in all
directions (except south), allowing views of the Solimana,
Coropuna and the distant Sara Sara mountains.
Another structure that is somewhat similar in form, as
well as in location, is the monumental tomb with imperial
Inca style found in the site of Ccopn. This is a rectangular
structure of 6.40 m long, 3.75 m wide and 3.75 m high,
with a flat roof that, apparently, could have been used as
a ceremonial platform. Significantly, there is a relatively
large plaza at the back of the tomb. A detailed description
of this structure can be found in Zikowski et al. 2005c.
Finally, the third structure of this type is the mausoleum
itself of site Maucallacta (Pampacolca). Woloszyn et al.
(2010: 1718) describe this as follows:
This is one of the most mysterious structures in the
siteThe building consists of two twin antechamber-
hallways and two chambers (one roofed with large
megalithic slabs of semi-carved stone that form a kind
of vault; the other covered by soil, although it could
originally have had a roof of wood and straw).
The mausoleum is a structure of 8 m long, 6 m wide and a
maximum of 2.40 m high. It is covered with stone slabs that
create a flat roof, which is surrounded by a wall; there is no
evidence of any other type of cover. Underneath this roof
is a chamber that was looted in colonial times and still has
traces of human bones and imperial-style Inca ceramics.
Stone benches and various pieces of twin pottery vessels
were found in the antechamber of this building. The latter
could have been part of offerings made in the building, after
or before the burial of an important person.
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ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 258
In summary, there are three funerary stone structures
that have flat roofs surrounded by walls, presenting the
characteristics of a ceremonial platform. In one of them
(Huaycha), this platform function is directly confirmed by
the presence of a staircase to access the upper part. All
three are located next to plazas: in the case of Huaycha, in
the main plaza of the site; in the other two cases, in small
plazas to the rear of the tombs (on the opposite side to the
entrance). In the last two cases (Ccopn and Maucallacta),
the Inca affiliation is evident, while in the case of Huaycha
it is more problematic as it could be a construction from the
Final Late Intermediate Period that was reused in Inca times.
The ceremonial character of these tombs seems quite
evident, and their formal resemblance to typical ushnus
is noticeable. However, there are also clear differences
between these tombs and ushnus, particularly in the cases
of Maucallacata and Ccopn where the tombs are not asso-
ciated with main plazas, but with smaller ones. This could
be a result of these tomb-platforms being used in ceremo-
nies that were intended for limited and select participants.
Conclusion
Accepting that the presence of an ushnu-plaza complex
is characteristic of administrative and ceremonial Inca
centres, and that the dimensions and quality of these struc-
tures reflected the hierarchical position of these centres
within the empire, it is clear that Maucallacta (Pampacolca
district, province of Castilla), Achaymarca (Salamanca dis-
trict, province of Condesuyos), and Itac (Chuquibamba
Valley) were the most important administrative and cere-
monial centres that the Inca established in the Chiefdom
of Condes. Presumably, the site of Ccopn (in the valley
of Andaray) was intended to serve a similar function, even
though it does not present any ushnu, a subject that has
been addressed above.
If we accept that the valley of Cotahuasi was part
of the supposed Chiefdom of Condes, then the site of
Maulkallacta Puica would undoubtedly be the fifth admin-
istrative and ceremonial centre of this chiefdom; while, in
the district of Chichas, the site of Muyu Muyu, where more
extensive studies are necessary, could be the sixth.
As demonstrated, all these sites share common features,
the most significant being their location and the pres-
ence of particular structures that are unequivocally Inca,
particularly kallankas. They are located in places above
important complexes of agricultural terraces and that, at
the same time, have relatively fast and direct access to
high puna areas.
In my interpretation, these common elements do not
mean that all these sites had the same hierarchy, as this
would certainly depend on several factors such as the
religious and oracular functions that are mentioned in his-
torical sources. Considering these functions, it seems that
the most important sites in the area during Inca times (and
possibly well before) were Maucallacta of Pampacolca,
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which probably was considered the oracle of Coropuna,
Muyu Muyu, which possibly had a similar function in
regard to Solimana, and finally Ccopn. As demonstrated
above, this last site presents the most intense degree of
intervention by Inca architects and planners in the whole
area under study, as well as a unique monument at the
centre of the sitean elite tomb erected in pure Cusqueo
style, with carved and polished stones of the highest quality.
There are also other sites that present smaller ushnu-
plaza complexes and that are located in the high puna.
However, except for an unclear case (Ajocancha), all of
them are found within residential settings. As a working
hypothesis, we have suggested that these ushnus could have
been erected on the initiative of different ethnic groups,
possibly mitimaes, as a means of expressing their independ-
ence and position in respect of neighbours.
On the other hand, there is a complete lack of iso-
lated ushnus, such as those that are commonly found in
the region of Ayacucho. Moreover, analysis of the inter-
visibility between the platforms, another important feature
of Ayacuchos ushnus, has shown that none of the seven
studied ushnus is visible from one another, and none share
similar views of the horizon and the surrounding landscape,
as occurs in Ayacucho. However, in all the cases where this
analysis was possible, it seems that the views and visibility
of the western peak of Coropuna, traditionally known
as La Nia, were important. Nevertheless, as it has been
postulated in the case of Ayacucho, most ushnus in the area
are located at high altitude (above 3700 masl). Finally, there
is also the quite specific case of the tomb-platforms. Can
they be considered a variety of ushnu?
All these similarities and differences, observed at
regional (within the Condesuyos) and interregional (com-
paring Condesuyos with other regions such as Ayacucho)
scale, force us to reconsider the role of ushnu platforms as
expressions of imperial power, and to look more closely
at other factors that could have determined the location
and symbolic function of each of these platforms, and the
political and religious role attributed to them.
Notes
1. The project is based on a technical and scientific cooperation
agreement between the Catholic University of Santa Maria de
Arequipa (Peru) and the University of Warsaw (Poland). The
project directors are Mariusz Zikowski and Luis Augusto
Franco Belan. Maximo Neira Avendao (19312009) was
scientific advisor until July 2009. This Peruvian-Polish project
is funded by the aforementioned universities and by the
ministries of Science and Higher Education and of Foreign
Affairs, Poland. It also includes the participation of institutions
and scientists from other countries such as France, Spain
and Germany. Since 2006, there has been an autonomous
subproject Maucallacta within the wider project, which has
focused on the study of the main shrine of Nevado Coropuna
(Pampacolca district, Castile province). This subproject is
called Maucallacta after the site where the shrine is located,
and is directed by Maciej Sobczyk and Gonzalo Presbtero
ISS-22-Ziolowski.indd 259
T H E U S H N U S O F C O N D E S U YO S
Rodriguez. For further information see Zikowski et al.
2005a. This paper was translated from Spanish by Francisco
Ferreira.
2. There is some terminological confusion in the ethnohistorical
sources in the naming of Condesuyos, Condesuyo or
Kuntisuyu: Condesuyo (or Kuntisuyu) is the name of the part
of Tawantinsuyu, south and southwest of Cusco. Condesuyos
is the name of a province within the Condesuyo (Kuntisuyu)
that bordered Collaguas in the east, Chumbivilcas in the
north and Parinacochas in the northwest. In colonial times
there was an administrative division between Condesuyos
of Cusco and Condesuyos of Arequipa that only partially
followed prehispanic boundaries. Some texts refer to the area
of Arequipa (por la parte de Arequipa) not only to define the
surroundings of the regions capital, but also a wider part of
the Condesuyo (Kuntisuyu). According to Garcilaso de la Vega,
the quarter of the Inca Empire called Condesuyo (Kuntisuyu)
was named after a particular ethnic group and territory, in the
same way that the Chinchaysuyu quarter was named after the
Chincha (Garcilaso de la Vega 1963 [1609]: 58).
3. The authors from Arequipa used to establish a clear division
between the Condes (Kuntis) and other nations of the region.
For example, when highlighting the importance of the Arones
(Arunis) ethnic group, whose presence to the southwest of
Coropuna is well documented in colonial documents,
Galdos (1993: 223) states: This ethnic group achieved
a high level of technological development long before
Manco Capac appeared, having their core territory in the
jurisdictions of Yanaquigua, Andaray, Yspacas and Alpacay,
in the the Kuntisuyu (in a territory that currently corresponds
to the province of Condesuyos). However, as all the other
Andean ethnic groups, the Arones did not remain within a
limited territory. In the logical pursuit of other ecological
environments and food varieties, they expanded towards
Nasca in the north, reaching Saramanca (or Salamanca in
Spanish); towards Chuquibamba in the east; and towards
Ocoa, Pescadores, and the coast in the west; passing
through the valleys of Pioc and Churunga, among others,
in the basin of River Ocoa. For this reason it is not strange
that when Pizarro granted the encomienda of Chuquibamba
to Juan Crespo (on 22 January 1540), he excluded three
different ethnic groups other than the Kuntis: the Chilpacas,
Achamarcas (of Saramarca), and Arunis. Thus: Those Indians
do not include the elderly, and even less the mitimates from
Chilpaca and Achaymarca, and the Arones that are in that
valley (of Chuquibamba), just the others who are for service.
4. The hypothetical reconstruction of the Chiefdom of Condes
boundaries by Marti Prssinen (1992: 363, map 26) is
independent of the discussion on the organisation and socio-
spatial division of the neighbouring Chiefdom of Collaguas.
On the latter, the ethnohistorical documentation is much
more abundant and complete (Prssinen 1992: 3626,
399403).
5. The captaincies served to recruit the workforce for the mine
at Potos.
6. The main difference between the reconstructions that are
based respectively on the captaincies and the corregimientos
is the administrative location of the Cotahuasi Valley.
According to both reconstructions, this valley would be
within the Chiefdom of Condes. However, according to the
boundary demarcation of the corregimientos, Cotahuasi
would be between the corregimientos of Condesuyus and
Chumbivilcas.
7. The presence of Inca ceramic is fairly common in almost all
sites occupied during the Late Horizon Period, although their
proportion differs. In this area, the study of the distribution
of Inca pottery and its relevance in relation to imperial
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 M A R I U S Z Z I KO W S K I
administration starts with the work of Jakub Rosiski (2005)
(there are other works in progress on the topic). In this
text, the presence of Inca ceramic is only addressed in the
context of sites with imperial influences in their urban and
architectural patterns.
8. The evolution of archaeological research in the area has been
studied in other publications (Zilkowski and Belan Franco
20002001).
9. Moreover, adjacent to our area of study, in the province of
Collaguas, there are two sites that show evidence of these
same features (Wernke 2003: 217; Doutriaux 2004).
10. Except for the site of Huasicac, in the district of Machahuay,
no significant Inca settlements have been found so far in the
lower parts of the valleys Pampacolca, Orcopampa, Andagua
and Rio Arma, or in the regions of Viraco and Machahuay.
This could be the result of a lack of complete archaeological
surveys, or a reflection of different and more indirect forms
of Inca control over these territories.
11. Obviously the proposed division is not exclusive. For
example, a particular site may have had several functions
such as religious, political and economic, so it could be
included in several networks.
12. The name of this site can be also spelled as Acchaymarca or
Achamarca.
13. Maucallacta (old village) is a fairly common place name in
this and other Andean regions. In the geographical area of the
Condesuyos project, this name was associated until recently
with a site that we call Pucuncho-Maucallacta, which is
located on the northern slopes of the Coropuna mountain.
This site was found in 1986 by Federico Kauffman Doig, who
mentioned it very briefly in one of his works (Kauffmann Doig
1987: 34).
14. This is the approximate area where the ceremonial and
residential buildings are located. Moreover, there are also three
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large cemeteries located south, east and west of Maucallacta,
as well as an important Pre-Inca site, Maucallacta 2, 1 km
east of the Inca settlement. Together the Inca settlement and
surrounding cemeteries occupy some 70 ha.
15. Vincent Jomelli, a collaborator of the project from the
Institut de Recherche pour le Dveloppement (IRD), France,
conducted a study on the growth rate of lichens in the walls
of prehispanic buildings in the area. On the basis of his
preliminary findings, he argues that the walls of the grand
platform are some centuries older than the walls of the Inca
buildings that are found on the same site. However, it is not
yet possible to determine precisely the time distance between
them (Vincent Jomelli, pers. comm., July 2005).
16. For a description of the Siulica 1 and 2 sites see Zilkowski
2005.
17. The stone (or huanca) is some 1.40 m long, 0.70 m wide
and 0.42 m high; it has no carving on the surface. A local
informant made explicit reference to its phallic shape. Perhaps
this symbolic aspect motivated the villagers to move the stone
and place it in the pond.
18. This site has been studied in the context of the Archaeological
Project Cotahuasi, directed by Justin Jennings and Willy
Yepez. The following description is based on the PhD thesis
of the former (Jennings 2002).
19. Justin Jennings, pers. comm., December 2013.
20. We owe this finding to D. Gary Pascualli from Pampacolca,
who told us about an important site on the route he used
to walk to go to Cusco. The settlement is located near the
Huillcacocha lagoon, in the district of Cayarani, Condesuyos
province.
21. This site is described in more detail in Zikowski et al. 2005c:
11421.
12/03/2014 16:06