Module 4 Master PDF

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 4 CONTENTS
ELECTRONIC
engineering FUNDAMENTALS
CONTENTS
1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................... !
.
1.1 LEVEL 1 ......................................................................................... !
.
1.2 LEVEL 2 ......................................................................................... !
.
2 DIODES ........................................................................................ 1
2.1 SEMI-CONDUCTORS ....................................................................... 1
2.1.1 Intrinsic Semi-Conductor ................................................ 1
2.1.2 Extrinsic Semi-Conductor ............................................... 2
2.2 THE HALL EFFECT .......................................................................... 4
2.3 THE JUNCTION DIODE .................................................................... 7
2.4 DIODE SYMBOL .............................................................................. 10
2.5 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS .............................................................. 10
2.6 DIODES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL................................................... 12
2.7 RECTIFIER DIODES ......................................................................... 13
2.8 EXAMPLES OF RECTIFIER DIODES ................................................... 15
2.9 RECTIFIER DIODES ......................................................................... 16
2.9.1 Selenium Rectifiers ........................................................ 16
2.9.2 Silicon Rectifiers ............................................................. 17
2.10 VOLTAGE REGULATOR/REFERENCE DIODES ................................... 19
2.10.1 Voltage Reference Diode ............................................... 21
2.10.2 Voltage Regulator Diode ................................................ 22
2.10.3 Construction ................................................................... 23
2.10.4 Switching On .................................................................. 24
2.10.5 SCR Characteristics ....................................................... 25
2.10.6 Use of the SCR .............................................................. 26
2.11 THE LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) ................................................. 28
2.11.1 Use of LEDs ................................................................... 28
2.12 THE PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE .................................................... 29
2.13 VARISTORS .................................................................................... 30
2.14 METAL OXIDE VARISTOR (MOV) ..................................................... 30
2.15 TESTING DIODES............................................................................ 31
3 TRANSISTORS ............................................................................ 1
3.1 TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION ......................................................... 1
3.2 TRANSISTOR OPERATION ............................................................... 3
3.3 SWITCHING TRANSISTORS .............................................................. 5
3.4 AMPLIFIER TRANSISTORS ............................................................... 7
3.4.1 Output Characteristics (Load Line)................................. 8
3.5 TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS ...................................................... 12
3.6 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FET) ................................................ 14
3.6.1 Construction ................................................................... 14
3.6.2 JFET Operation .............................................................. 17
Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 1

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ELECTRONIC
3.6.3 Circuit Symbol ................................................................ 19

3.6.4 Drain Characteristics ...................................................... 20
3.6.5 Insulated-Gate FET ........................................................ 21
3.6.6 Depletion Mode MOSFET .............................................. 21
3.6.7 Enhancement Mode MOSFET ....................................... 23
4 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ............................................................. 1
4.1 GENERAL ...................................................................................... 1
4.1.1 Advantages .................................................................... 1
4.1.2 Disadvantages ............................................................... 2
4.2 IC CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................ 3
4.2.1 Monolithic ICs ................................................................ 3
4.2.2 Bipolar IC Construction .................................................. 4
4.2.3 MOS ICs ........................................................................ 5
4.2.4 Thin-Film IC ................................................................... 6
4.2.5 Thick-Film ICs ............................................................... 7
4.2.6 Hybrid ICs ..................................................................... 7
4.2.7 IC Packages................................................................... 8
4.3 TYPES OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ..................................................... 10
4.4 DIGITAL ICS .................................................................................. 10
4.4.1 AND Gate ....................................................................... 11
4.4.2 OR Gate ......................................................................... 12
4.4.3 NOT Gate ....................................................................... 12
4.4.4 Combination Logic Circuits ............................................ 13
4.5 LINEAR (OR ANALOGUE) IC ............................................................ 15
4.6 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP AMP)............................... 15
4.7 THE UNITY GAIN FOLLOWER .......................................................... 19
4.8 THE FOLLOWER WITH GAIN ............................................................ 20
4.9 THE INVERTER ............................................................................... 21
4.10 THE SUMMING AMPLIFIER .............................................................. 22
4.11 THE DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER .......................................................... 23
4.12 THE INTEGRATOR .......................................................................... 24
4.13 THE DIFFERENTIATOR .................................................................... 25
4.14 THE COMPARATOR ........................................................................ 26
4.15 THE IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER .............................................. 27
5 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS ....................................................... 1
5.1 CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................. 1
5.2 MULTI-LAYER CIRCUITS ................................................................. 3
5.3 HANDLING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS ............................................ 3
6 SERVOMECHANISMS ................................................................. 1
6.1 OPEN LOOP SYSTEM ..................................................................... 1
6.2 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.................................................................. 2
6.3 FOLLOW UP ................................................................................... 3
6.4 TYPES OF SERVO .......................................................................... 3
6.5 FEEDBACK ..................................................................................... 4
6.5.1 Positional Feedback ....................................................... 4
Page 2 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

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MODULE 4 CONTENTS
ELECTRONIC
6.6 ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (RVDT) ................ 6

6.7 CAPACITANCE TRANSMITTER .......................................................... 8
6.8 VELOCITY FEEDBACK ..................................................................... 9
6.9 DC TACHO-GENERATOR ................................................................ 10
6.10 AC TACHO-GENERATOR ................................................................ 10
6.11 SYNCHROS .................................................................................... 11
6.11.1 Introduction..................................................................... 11
6.12 TORQUE SYNCHRO ........................................................................ 11
6.12.1 Principle of Operation ..................................................... 11
6.13 CONTROL SYNCHRO ...................................................................... 14
6.13.1 Principle of Operation ..................................................... 14
6.14 DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO ................................................................ 16
6.15 TORQUE DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO .................................................. 18
6.16 CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO ................................................ 19
6.17 RESOLVER SYNCHRO ..................................................................... 20
6.17.1 Polar and Cartesian Co-ordinates .................................. 20
6.17.2 Resolver Synchro Operation .......................................... 21
6.17.3 Conversion from Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates .......... 22
6.17.4 Conversion from Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates .......... 23
6.17.5 Use of Resolver Synchros .............................................. 24
6.18 E AND I BAR TRANSMITTER............................................................. 24

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CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.1.
MODULE 4
ELECTRONIC DIODES
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MODULE 4
1 DIODES
ELECTRONIC
Semi-conductor diodes embrace a very wide
FUNDAME field of devices using varied modes
NTALS
of operation. Before discussing these, it is necessary to briefly describe semi-
conductors themselves.
1.1 SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Germanium and silicon are the most common semi-conductor elements. Figure 1
shows an element in pure crystalline form. The circles represent atoms and the
dots valence electrons, electrons able to combine with those of another atom.
ELECTRON
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
HOLE
Silicon Structure
Figure 1
1.1.1 INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR
Note that one of the atoms has lost an electron, leaving a 'hole' but the free
electron is still present inside the crystal lattice, so the crystal as a whole remains.
A crystal of pure semi-conductor material with no other atoms, such as in Figure
1, is called an intrinsic semi-conductor.

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MODULE 4 DIODES
ELECTRONIC
Figure 2 shows current flow in an intrinsic semi-conductor. The electrons

(negative charge) are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery, while the
holes (positive charge) are attracted to the negative.
ELECTRONS HOLES
SEMICONDUCTOR
MATERIAL
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Figure 2
1.1.2 EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semi-conductors are poor conductors. By adding an impurity to the

crystal, conductivity can be improved. Figure 3a shows an impurity having five
electrons added. The 'extra electron' is not needed for crystal bonding and so is
free to move about the lattice as a conduction electron.
Since it is not a part of the lattice, it does not leave a 'hole' when it moves; but a
'positive ion'. The more impurity atoms added, the more conductive the material.
The semi-conductor is now 'extrinsic' and of the 'N type'. Electrons are the
majority carriers, they are negative, and hence 'N' type.
Figure 3b shows a lattice with an element having only three valence electrons
added. This time there is a shortage of electrons and this produces 'holes' in the
material and negative ions. With fewer negative electrons, the majority carriers
are positive 'holes'. Now the material is described as 'P' type.
The impurity added to give more electrons to make N type material is known as a
donor impurity. The impurity added to give more holes to make P type material
is known as an acceptor impurity. The process of adding either type of impurity
is known as doping.

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ELECTRONIC DIODES
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ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS
5
EXTRA
4
4 ELECTRON
4
4
4
4
5 DONOR
IMPURITY
ATOM
4
5
4
4
3
4
4
4
(a) ACCEPTOR
IMPURITY
ATOM 4
4
3
4
HOLE 4
3
4
4
(b)
Extrinsic Semiconductor
Figure 3

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ELECTRONIC
1.2 THE HALL EFFECT
When experimenting in 1879 with current flowing in a strip of metal, E M Hall

discovered that some of the charge carriers were deflected to one of the faces of
the conductor when a strong magnetic field was applied. This gave rise to an emf
(the Hall voltage) between opposite faces of the conductor. The emf is only a few
microvolts in the case of a metal conductor, but is much larger when the current
flows in a semiconductor.
An experiment, making use of what is known as the Hall Effect, can be

conducted to demonstrate that the majority carriers in a bar of semiconductor
material are electrons in N type and holes in P type. Figure 4 shows the Hall
Effect
2 0V
+10V
+2 0V
0V
0V
P.D.
SE MICONDUCTOR CURRE NT
M AT ERIAL FLOW
+10V
2 0V
+11V
+9V
+ 11 V
POSITIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (HOLES)
+ 9V
+ 9V
NEGATIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS)
+ 11 V
The Hall Effect

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ELECTRONIC DIODES
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Figure 4
ELECTRONIC
Consider the arrangement illustarted in figure 4a, this shows a bar of
semiconductor material, with aFUNDAMENTALS
D.C. voltage of 20V applied. Conventional current
will flow as indicated by the arrow. A further two connections A & B are taken
from opposite faces of the bar at the mid-point along the axis. Thus under static
conditions, the voltgae at connect A and B will be +10V relative to the negative
terminal, and there is no voltage difference between them, i.e. no potential
difference.
No consider what happens when we place this bar in a transverse magnetic field
as in figure 4b. the charge carriers moving in the semiconductor are deflected by
the magnetic field in the direction given by Flemings Left-Hand rule. Thus,
whether the charge carriers are holes or electrons, they are deflected upwards in
figure 4b, towards connection A. This will result in a redistribution of charge
carriers between A & B, with the consentration towards A. If the charge carriers
are positive (holes), connection A becomes positive with respect to connection B
as shown in figure 4c. Conversely, if the charge carriers are negative (electrons),
connection A becomes negative with respect to B as shown in figure 4c.
The voltage difference between connection A & B is called the Hall Voltage and
has many pratical applications such as Contactless switches (proximity
detectors). It can also be used in a dc starter/generator system as a means of
measuring generator output current and providing an input signal to a Generator
Control Unit (GCU) which controls generator field current (voltage regulation)m
and protection. Figure 5 shows Hall Effect Sensors in a DC starter/generator
system as fitted to the ATR 42/72 aircraft.

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ELECTRONIC
HALL EFFECT GENERATOR

SENSOR CONTROL UNIT
STARTER
GENERATOR
CURRENT
MEASURING
HALL EFFECT
SENSOR
TO
DISTRIBUTION
Hall Effect Sensors

Figure 5

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1.3 THE JUNCTION DIODE ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS
So far N type and P-Type materials have been considered separately.
However, most semiconductor devices contain regions where P-type material is
joined to N-type material at one or more places. These places are called P-N
junctions and the behaviour of the devices depends upon the electrical behaviour
of the region around the junctions.
By doping a semi-conductor so that there is N type material at one end and P

type at the other, a Junction Diode is made. Refer Figure 6. In this arrangement,
the electrons in the N type are repelled by the like polarity of the negative ions in
the P type.
Similarly the positive holes in the P type are repelled by the positive ions in the N
Type. This leaves an area at the junction without any majority carriers and it is
called the depletion layer.
DEPLETION
LAYER
POSITIVE IONS NEGATIVE IONS
N-TYPE P-TYPE
HOLES
ELECTRONS
Junction Diode

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MODULE 4 DIODES
ELECTRONIC
Figure 6

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ELECTRONIC DIODES
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By connecting a battery across a junction diode, positive to N type, negative to P
ELECTRO
type, (reverse biased), majority carriers NIC flow, hence there is no current
cannot
flow in the circuit. FUNDAMENTALS
If the battery is connected positive to P type, negative to N type, (forward biased)
majority carriers are allowed to flow and there is current flow in the circuit. This is
the characteristic of the diode. It will allow current flow in one direction only,
when forward biased, but not in the other direction when reverse biased. Figure
7 shows a junction diode reversed and forward biased.
N O CU R R EN T N O CU R R EN T
N -TYPE P-TYPE
D EPL ET IO N D EPL ET IO N
L AY ER SM A LL L AY ER SM A LL
W ID EN S VO LT A GE N A RR OW S VO LT A GE
P-TYPE N -TYPE
N O CU R R EN T C U RR EN T F L OW S
N -TYPE P-TYPE
D EPL ET IO N
L AY ER L AR GE L AR G E
VE RY W IDE VO LT A GE VO LT A GE
P-TYPE N -TYPE
Junction Diode Reversed/Forward Biased

Figure 7

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1.4 DIODE SYMBOL
Figure 8 demonstrates, using the circuit symbol for a diode, how the device is
placed in a circuit to allow or block current flow. Note that (conventional) current
flows in the direction of the arrow in the symbol.
+ _
ANODE CATHODE
REVERSED FORWARD
BIASED BIASED
NO CURRENT CURRENT FLOW
Diode Symbol
Figure 8
1.5 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
With all diodes there are four parameters to be considered, these are:
1. Maximum permissible forward current (mA).
2. Maximum voltage drop (V) at nominal operating current (mA).
3. Typical reverse current (A).
4. Maximum permissible reverse voltage (V).

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Figure 9 shows the static characteristics of a silicon diode and figure 10 show s
ELECTRO
the characteristics for a germanium diode. NIC
FUNDAMENTALS
Note: That the reverse current axes on both graphs are different.
mA
200
FORWARD
150
BIAS
100
50
VOLTS
-200V -150 -100 -50V 0.25V 0.5V 0.75V 1V
-0.02
-0.04
REVERSED -0.06
BIAS
-0.08
Silicon Diode Characteristics

Figure 9

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ELECTRONIC
mA
200
FORWARD
150
BIAS
100
50
VOLTS
-200V -150 -100 -50V 0.25V 0.5V 0.75V 1V
50
100
REVERSED 150
BIAS
200
Germanium Diode Characteristics

Figure 10
1.6 DIODES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
Diodes may be connected in series or parallel. For carrying high voltage, a series
configuration would be used. If a high current carrying capability were required,
the diodes would be connected in parallel.

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1.7 RECTIFIER DIODES ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS
Rectifier diodes are designed to convert A.C. to D.C. and to be able to achieve
this effectively and efficiently, they must have:
1. Low resistance to current flow in the

forward direction.
2. High resistance to current flow in the

opposite (reverse) direction.
Because of the need for a very low reverse current and a high breakdown
voltage, almost all semiconductors rectifier diodes are silicon junction types; they
usually have a junction area that is large relative to their size to assist in the
dissipation of heat. An elementary rectifier circuit is where the diode is inserted in
series between the input and output, this is shown in figure 11.
A.C. INPUT D.C. OUTPUT
+ +
0 INPUT 0 OUTPUT
- -
Basic Rectifier Circuit

Figure 11
The diode effectively passes current only in the forward bias condition. As can be
seen from figure 10, when A.C. input is applied, pulses of unidirectional D.C.
voltages are developed across the output load resistance.

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Note; The polarity of the output D.C. can be reversed by reversing the diode
connections.

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1.8 EXAMPLES OF RECTIFIER DIODES
ELECTRONIC
Silicon rectifier diodes are available that are
FUNDAME capable of supplying currents from
NTALS
about 200mA to about 2000A at voltages up to 3000 or 4000 volts. A sample
cross-section of such diodes is illustrated in Figure 12. Compared with other
rectifying devices, silicon junction rectifiers are small and lightweight. They are
also impervious to shock and are capable of working at temperatures up to about
200C.
250mA @ 200V
1A @ 1000V
1000A @ 2500V
10A @ 400V
1A @ 1500V
Silicon Rectifier Diodes

Figure 12

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1.9 RECTIFIER DIODES
1.9.1 SELENIUM RECTIFIERS
The aluminium base serves as a surface for the dissipation of heat. The
rectifying junction covers one side of the base apart from a narrow strip at the
edges and an area around the fixing hole, which is sprayed with insulating
varnish. Figure 13 shows the construction of a selenium rectifier element.
INSULATING
VARNISH
RECTIFYING
COUNTER
JUNCTION
ELECTRODE
SELENIUM ALUMINIUM
BASE
HOLE FOR
MOUNTING BOLT
Selenium Rectifier
Figure 13
The counter electrode is a thin layer of a low melting point alloy, sprayed over the
selenium coating and insulating varnish. The counter electrode is the cathode,
while the base is the anode.
These rectifiers may be stacked in series, suitable for high voltages, or in parallel,
suitable for high current. When stacking, pressure applied during assembly tends
to reduce the reverse resistance. This is overcome by application of varnish at
the mounting studs.
Reverse resistance is a limiting factor in rectifiers, as is temperature. The

maximum operating temperature of these rectifiers is in the order of 70C.

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1.9.2 SILICON RECTIFIERS
ELECTRONIC
The silicon rectifier is a far smaller unit than
FUNDAME the selenium rectifier. This type of
NTALS
rectifier is used in the brushless ac generator. The silicon slice is extremely
small. On one face it has a fused aluminium alloy contact to which the anode and
lead are soldered. The other face is soldered to a base, usually copper. This is
the cathode and acts as a heat sink. The aluminium - silicon junction forms the
barrier layer. The whole is enclosed in a hermetically sealed case to protect it
from environmental conditions. These rectifiers operate at temperatures up to
150C. Figure 14 shows a Silicon Rectifier.
ANODE HERMETICALLY
LEAD SEALED CAVITY
ALUMINIUM
SOLDER RECTIFYING
JUNCTION
SILICON
JUNCTION
COPPER
BASE
THREADED MOUNTING
STUD AND CATHODE
TERMINAL
Silicon Rectifier
Figure 14

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ELECTRONIC
Figure 15 shows the circuit for a Full-Wave bridge rectifier.
Full-Wave Bridge rectifier

Figure 15

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1.10 VOLTAGE REGULATOR/REFERENCE DIODES
ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS
The operation of voltage reference diodes and regulator diodes is very similar, in
that both are normally designed to operate under reverse bias conditions.
These diodes are often referred to as Zener Diodes, other names include
Breakdown and Avalanche diodes.
Figure 16 shows circuit symbols for Zener Diode.
PREFERRED SYMBOL
ALTERNATIVE SYMBOLS
Zener Diode
Figure 16
Zener Diodes are rated to their Zener (breakdown) voltage and also their power
rating (IV), they must have a low temperature coefficients (0.001%C). They are
all made of silicon, to satisfy the temperature requirements.
Their construction is such that, relative to the normal P-N junction diode, the
reverse IV characteristics are normally extended into the breakdown region. As a
a result, zener diodes usually operate at higher values of reverse voltage than
that allowed in normal P-N diode circuits. Figure 17 shows the IV characteristics
of a zener diode.

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BREAKDOWN
REGION
V
NORMAL OPERATING
CURRENT IN THIS VERY SMALL
REGION REVERSE CURRENT
MAXIMUM CURRENT
DETERMINED BY
THERMAL DISSIPATION
CAPABILITIES
Zener Diode IV Characteristics

Figure 17
The reverse current is very small (microamps) and is virtually independent of

voltage up to the breakdown point. At breakdown, the reverse current increases
rapidly for very little increase in reverse voltage. The maximum current that the
device can pass is determined by the Thermal Dissipation capabilities of the
device (power rating). Zener diodes used in regulators are capable of carrying
current in excess of 15A without destruction.

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1.10.1 VOLTAGE REFERENCE DIODE
ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS
This develops and Holds across its terminal a very stable reference voltage
when conducting within a specified narrow current range. The reference voltage
developed depends, of course upon the particular device.
Figure 18 shows a zener diode used as a voltage stabilizer to provide +5V stable
output for a digital system.
V IN - VZ
R=
IZ
V IN VR IZ
I = 5mA
+28V 10% up 30.8V 25.8V 5.6mA
10% down 25.2V 20.2V 4.4mA
1.2mA VARIATION
R1 4600
V INPUT
28V 10%
STABILIZED OUTPUT
5V VARIATION 5V
ZENER 14 STABILIZED
DIODE 1.2mA X 14 OUTPUT
= 16.8mV
0V 0V
Voltage Stabilizer
Figure 18
The zener diode has a nominal breakdown voltage VZ of 5V, at a working current
IZ of 5mA, and that its dynamic resistance RZ is 15 Ohms (typical figures). To
provide the output voltage of 5V for a nominal input VIN OF 28v, the value of R
must be such that the diode operates in the designed breakdown region; its value
is calculated in figure 18. The arrangement then ensures that, for quite significant
variations in VIN, the operating point moves very little and VOUT is held at the VZ
reference point.

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Figure 18 shows for variations of 10% in VIN, the current operating point moves
from 4.4mA to 5.6mA about its static value of 5mA. The resulting change in the
value of VZ is shown to be 16.8mV, which is an almost insignificant variation
compared with the original variation of the input voltage.
1.10.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR DIODE
Designed to ensure that the voltage developed across its terminals remains
within a certain range for fairly wide variations in current through it. For example,
a given device is desigend to hold the voltage within the reange 9.4V to 10.6V
(e.e. 10.0V nominal) for variations of seeral milliamps of current through it. Its
main use is in circuits where it is necessary to hold voltages reasonably constant
as variations occur in circuit conditions.
Figure 19 shows a typical voltage regulator circuit.
DC
V OUT
V IN
Voltage regulator Circuit

Figure 19

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The Silicon Controlled Rectifier
ELECTRONIC
The SCR, or thyristor, is a semi-conductor
FUNDAMENTALS device made up of both N and P
materials. It has two stable states, OFF or ON, and is used as a switching
device.
1.10.3 CONSTRUCTION
The SCR is made up of four regions of semi-conductor material, either NP NP or

PN PN. There are three connecting electrodes, the anode, cathode and gate.
The outer N and P regions are connected to the cathode and anode respectively
while the central N and P region is connected to the gate. In this case the P
section. Figure 20 shows the construction and circuit symbol for a SCR.
ANODE
FORWARD
BIASED
REVERSED
BIASED
GATE
FORWARD CIRCUIT SYMBOL

BIASED
CATHODE
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Figure 20

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1.10.4 SWITCHING ON
In the off condition with the circuit connected to a supply, the junction between
the two bases is reverse biased whilst the junction between the base and the
anode and the base and the cathode are forward biased. For all practical
purposes, current flow is blocked, although a small leakage current will exist.
The SCR is switched either by increasing the supply voltage to a value known as
breakover voltage, or by application of a current pulse to the gate. In this state
both inner regions are saturated with carriers and the junction between them is
forward biased. In consequence, the potential difference across the SCR is very
low. Beyond the breakover point the current increases rapidly, limited only by the
resistance of the circuit.
If the current should fall below a value termed the holding current, the SCR
reverts to the off or forward blocking position. It should be noted that once the
gate is pulsed it no longer controls the current so that its supply can be removed
without affecting the operation of the SCR.

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1.10.5 SCR CHARACTERISTICS ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS
Figure 21 shows a typical SCR characteristic with 10 milliamps on the gate.
When the anode voltage reaches the breakover point, in this case 360 volts, the
current through the device goes to a maximum. If the gate current is increased,
then the breakover point occurs at lower anode voltages.
30A GATE CURRENT 10mA
BREAKOVER VOLTAGE = 360V
20A
ANODE CURRENT
INCREASING THE GATE CURRENT

WILL DECREASE THE BREAKOVER
VOLTAGE
10A
360V BREAKOVER
IG 40mA
20mA
10mA
0 100 200 300 400
ANODE VOLTAGE
Breakover Voltage
Figure 21
The advantage of the SCR can be seen from the fact that a large current can be
switched with a very small controlling current.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4 DIODES
ELECTRONIC
1.10.6 USE OF THE SCR
As well as a high current switching device (up to 1000A), the SCR can be used
as a current controlling device.
When a thyristor is used with an ac supply it can only conduct on the positive
half-cycles like a rectifier. This means that a trigger pulse would be necessary to
fire the thyristor every half-cycle. By synchronizing the firing point on the positive
half-cycle, the amount of current flowing in the circuit is fixed, as shown in Figure
22 below.
SUPPLY
LOAD
TRIGGER
PULSE
A.C.
SUPPLY
TRIGGER
LOAD
CURRENT
Thyristor on Alternating Current

Figure 22

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
ELECTRONIC DIODES
66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 4
By varying the firing point (phase shift) the current can be controlled. In this
circuit, capacitance C and resistance R act NIC
ELECTRO as a potential divider. As R is
decreased, so the phase difference between
FUNDAME the anode and the gate will
NTALS
increase, delaying the firing time. Thus, R gives control over the firing point, so
controlling the power to the load. A light dimming circuit can be operated in this
manner. Figure 23 shows a typical circuit.
SUPPLY
VARIABLE
R
TRIGGER
A.C. PULSE
SUPPLY POSITION DETERMINED
BY C/R TIME
C
LOAD
CURRENT
Thyristor on Alternating Current

Figure 23

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4 DIODES
ELECTRONIC
1.11 THE LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)
LEDs are made from a semiconductor material, which emits light when current
flows through the junction. The most common colour emitted is red but green
and yellow are available at a lower intensity. Figure 24 shows the circuit symbol
for an LED and its operation.
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
EMITS LIGHT
+5V EARTH
DIODE IS FORWARD BIASED
ON
EARTH +5V
DIODE IS REVERSED BIASED
OFF
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Figure 24
The voltage drop across a LED is around 2 volts. Above this voltage, the current
passing through it increases rapidly. For this reason a series resistor is used to
limit the current to around 10 ma to prevent burnout of the junction.
1.11.1 USE OF LEDS
LEDs can be used to replace filament lamps, with the advantage of less current
consumption, less heat and no filament to burn out. They are often found on
aircraft fault panels.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
ELECTRONIC DIODES
66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 4
1.12 THE PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE
ELECTRONIC
This device is a normal PN junction with aNTALS
FUNDAME transparent case or window. All semi-
conductor diodes are subject to some movement of hole/electron pairs when the
junction is at room temperature and this gives rise to a small leakage current,
even with the diode reversed biased but the current is measured in
microamperes.
When light falls on the junction, its energy produces a much larger number of
hole/electron pairs and the leakage current is greatly increased. These devices
have a rapid response to light and are used in the encoding altimeter to encode
the grey code into binary code. Figure 25 shows the circuit symbol and
construction of a Photo Conductive Diode.
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
N TYPE
PHO TO -C ON DU C TIVE
MA TER IA L
PRO TEC TIVE
GLA SS CA P
P TYPE
SUB STA NC E
C ON NECTING
PIN S
Photo Conductive Diode

Figure 25

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4 DIODES
ELECTRONIC
1.13 VARISTORS
The varistor is a semi-conductor device used for clipping 'noise spikes' off ac
voltage. Noise spikes are of very short duration and large amplitude. They may
pass through a power supply and appear on a dc regulated output voltage. Low
pass filters are often ineffective against noise spikes so the spikes are attenuated
before rectification of ac to dc.
1.14 METAL OXIDE VARISTOR (MOV)
The MOV is a semi-conductor resistor made of zinc oxide crystals. When voltage
across it exceeds a certain voltage, in negative or positive direction, the device
conducts to clip off noise spikes. Figure 26 shows the characteristic of the
varistor, the circuit symbol and equivalent circuit. Although the varistor acts in a
similar way to a zener diode, it is much faster in operation.
TYPICAL MOV
+I
VOLT- AMPS
CHARACTERISTICS
POSITIVE
BREAKDOWN
200V
-V +200V +V
NEGATIVE
BREAKDOWN
-I
CIRCUIT
SYMBOLS
Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV)

Figure 26

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
ELECTRONIC DIODES
66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 4
1.15 TESTING DIODES
ELECTRONIC
Before testing a diode, the cathode must be
FUNDAME identified and then an ohmmeter is
NTALS
applied as in Figure 27. In one direction the ohmmeter reading should be low but
a very high resistance should be detected in the other direction.
LO W RE S IS TA NC E
F LUK E 2 3 S ER IE S MU L TIME T ER
O HM S
0 0 0.2 3
0 10 20 30
O FF V
P V
300 m V
N P RE S S
R AN G E
A A UT O R AN G E
A
10A V
CATHODE
!
10 00V
300 75 0V C OM
mA
FU S E D
SYMBOL ST RUCTURE
Testing Diodes
Figure 27

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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COVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.2.
MODULE 4
ELECTRONIC TRANSISTORS
2 TRANSISTORS
The transistor can be a high or low resistance device, hence the name, which is
derived from TRANSfer resISTOR.
It is used in many switching and amplifier circuits where its resistive properties
are controlled by small currents.
2.1 TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION
The properties of semi-conductor materials, P and N type, were discussed in

Module 4.1.1. A transistor is made up of these materials in the configurations
shown in Figure 1. The circuit symbols for these transistors are also shown.
COLLECTOR
C
CIRCUIT
N SYMBOL
BASE P B
N N OT
P OINTING
IN
COLLECTOR
EMITTER
E
C
THE NPN TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT
P SYMBOL
BASE N B
EMITTER
E
THE PNP TRANSISTOR
PNP & NPN Transistors

Figure 1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.2
MODULE 4
As can be seen from figure 1, there are two possible types of physical
arrangement:
1. The N-P-N transistor, which consists of a thin region of P-type material,

sandwiched between two N-type regions.
2. The P-N-P transistor, which consists of a thin region of N-type material,

sandwiched between two P-type regions.
The centre region of the device is called the Base; one outer region is called the
Emitter, and the other the Collector. Although the emitter and collector regions
are the same type of extrinsic semiconductor (N-type in N-P-N and P-type in P-N-
P), they are constructed and doped differently and are not interchangeable on a
practical device.
The circuit symbol for both P-N-P and N-P-N are shows in figure 1. The only
difference between them is the direction of the arrowhead on the emitter lead.
For either type, the arrowhead indicates the direction of Conventional current
flow when the base/emitter junction is forward biased (i.e. base +ve with respect
to emitter for an N-P-N device, and base ve relative to emitter for a P-N-P
device).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
2.2 TRANSISTOR OPERATION
Figure 2 shows a NPN transistor and the corresponding diode circuit. It can be
seen from the diode circuit that to operate, the base/emitter must be forward
biased, whereas the base/collector is reversed biased.
N - TYPE
B
P - TYPE
N - TYPE
E
DIODE MODEL
NPN Transistor & Diode Circuit

Figure 2

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
Figure 3 shows a simple transistor circuit using electron flow to explain the
operation.
IC HIGH
(99%)
C
IB LOW
(1%)
E
IE HIGH
(100%)
NPN Transistor Operation

Figure 3

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
2.3 SWITCHING TRANSISTORS
When a transistor is to be used as a switching device, it operates either as an

open circuit (i.e. in the cut-off region) or as a short circuit (i.e. in the saturation
region). Figure 3 shows the solenoid switch and an alternative transistor switch.
LAMP
S OLENO ID A NA LO GY
E C
Switching Transistors

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
MODULE 4
Figure 3

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
MODULE 4
For a common base circuit, such as in figure 3, the output voltage taken from the
collector is either equal to the supply voltage (saturated region), or zero volts.
(cut-off).
2.4 AMPLIFIER TRANSISTORS
Successful use of a transistor as an amplifier depends upon the collector current

being controlled by the base. Amplification in a transistor is called Gain and is
the relationship between base current to collector current. Figure 4 shows
amplifier gain.
AMPLIFIER
INPUT OUTPUT
SIGNAL SIGNAL
AMPLIFICATION IN A
TRANSISTOR IS CALLED
GAIN
I
GAIN =
COLLECTOR CURRENT
BASE CURRENT
= IC
B
Amplifier Gain
Figure 4

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
2.4.1 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS (LOAD LINE)
Figure 5 shows a Common Emitter amplifier stage.
+40V
RL
IC
IB
VCE
VBE
Common Emitter Amplifier Stage

Figure 5
With no base/emitter bias applied, there will be no collector current flowing. The
output voltage VCE will be equal to the supply voltage (40V). As the collector
current IC flows through resistor RL there will be a voltage drop (IC x RL) across
the resistor. The collector voltage will depend upon the collector current i.e. 40V
minus IC x RL volts.
If IC is zero, then VCE must be 40v. VCE could be reduced to zero by a value of IC
of 40/RL amperes. If we assume RL to have a value of 18 ohms, then VCE will be
zero for an IC of approximately 2.2 amperes.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
Figure 6 shows a graph plotting collector current against collector/emitter voltage

for different values of base current.
IC
2.5
2.0
35mA
1.5
25mA
15mA
1.0
0.5
VCE
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Common Emitter Characteristics

Figure 6
The straight line from the collector/emitter voltage axis to the collector current
axis is the Load Line and indicates the only values of VCE and IC which are
possible for that circuit. Obviously, if a different value of RL is used, we would get
a different load line with a different slope.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
For amplifiaction to take place we must first apply an initial bias voltage to the
base. With 1.3 VBE applied the IB will be 25mA giving an IC of 1.4A which would
produce an output of 15V (VCE). If we now apply a sinusoidal input signal of 0.6V,
the base current would vary between 15 -35mA, which in turn would vary the IC
between 1.1 1.7A, giving a voltage output between 10 20V.
This produces an amplifier gain of 0.6A/25mA = 30. Figure 7 shows the

voltage/current waveforms of these variations.
20 V
15 V
10 V
35mA
25mA
15mA
IB
VCE
1.6 V
1.3 V
1.0 V
1.7 A
1.4 A
1.1 A
VBE
IC
Waveform Variations (Current/Voltage)

Figure 7

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
MODULE 4
Figure 8 shows a typical bipolar transistor.
TAG
b c
EMITTER
BASE
COLLECTOR
Bipolar Transistor
Figure 8

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
2.5 TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
Before a transistor can be used, it must be connected into an input circuit (by two
wires) and an output circuit (two wires). However, because the transistor has
only three terminals, one of the terminals must be in both the input and output
circuits; this is then called The Common terminal. Three circuit configurations
are possible and are illustrated in figure 9.
C
E C
B
O UTPU T
E INP UT O UTPU T
INP UT B
CO M M ON E MITTE R CO M M ON B AS E
B
O UTPU T
INP UT C
CO M M ON C OLLE CTO R
Transistor Configurations
Figure 9
Note that the word common refers to the transistor component connected to both the
INPUT and OUTPUT. In the common emitter configuration for example, the emitter is
connected to both the input and output.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
Table 1 shows the comparisons of the three transistor configurations
Common Common Common

Emitter Base Collector
Current Gain 20 -200 (0.95 0.995) 20 - 200
Voltage Gain 100 600 500 800 <1
Power Gain Highest Medium Lowest
Input Impedance 500 - 2000 50 - 200 20k - 100k
Output Impedance 10 50 K 100 k - 1M 20 500
I/P O/P Phase 180 In Phase In Phase
Impedance Impedance
Typical Use Normal Amp matching matching
(low to high) (high to low)
Table 1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
2.6 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FET)
A field-effect transistor (FET) is a semiconductor device in which the current

flowing through a conduction channel i.e. between two terminals called the
Source and the Drain and is controlled by an electric field arising from a
voltage applied to another terminal, called the Gate).
There are two classes of field-effect transistor:
1. The Junction-Gate Field-effect Transistor (JUGFET).
2. The Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistor (IGFET).
JUGFET: Has one (or more) semiconductor gate regions, which form P-N
junction with the channel.
IGFET: Has an insulating layer (usually of oxide material) between the channel
and the gate electrode (usually metal) It is often called the MOSFET (Metal
Oxide semiconductor FET).
There is a furtyher subdivision of filed-effect transistors which isd due to the

doping of the semiconductor:
1. An N-Channel field-effect transistor has an N-Type semiconducting

channel.
2. A P-Channel field-effect transistor has a P-Type semiconducting channel.
2.6.1 CONSTRUCTION
Suppose we have a semiconductor bar of N-type material with contacts on each

end. If a voltage is applied between these two contacts, current will flow through
the bar, caused almost entirely by drift of majority carriers (which are electrons for
an N-Type bar). The terminal through which the majority carriers enter the bar is
usually called the Source and the terminal through which the majority carriers
leave the bar is called the Drain. The drain-to-source voltage is usually called
VDS. It is positive for normal operation of an N-channel device.
On both sides of the N-type bar, heavily doped P-Type regions have been formed
(using usual techniques for making P-N junctions). The two regions are
connected together and brought out to the Gate terminal. The region of N-Type
material between the two gate regions is called the Channel along which the
majority carriers drift from source to drain.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
Between the gate and the source terminals a bias (called VGS) is applied to
reverse bias the P-N junctions between the regions and the channel. For an N-
channel device VGS will be negative. As the junctions are reversed biased there
will be almost zero current at the gate terminal.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
MODULE 4
Figure 10 shows the construction of a JUGFET.
GATE
DRAIN
REGION
SOURCE
REGION
SOURCE DRAIN
P-TYPE
N-TYPE
N TYPE N TYPE
CHANNEL
GATE
JUGFET Construction
Figure 10

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
MODULE 4
2.6.2 JFET OPERATION
Figure 11 shows the operation of a JFET.
ELECT RONS FL OW
THROUGH THE N-TYPE
MATERIAL
SOU R CE D RA IN
N R EGIO N N R EGIO N
P R EGION S
GA TE
HIGH ENO UG H G AT E
CHARGE CARRIERS VOL TAGE WILL
F ORCED OUT O F CLO SE CHANNEL
T HESE REG IONS COMPLETEL Y
SOURCE DRAIN SOURCE DRAIN
NO
OUT PUT
GAT E GAT E
GAT E GATE
VOL TAGE VOL TAGE
JFET Operation
Figure 11
The JUGFET has a physical structure that can be represented by the diagram
shown in Figure 11a. In Figure 11b, if the N-Type material is connected to a
power source, current will flow through it. It can be seen that the power source
could be connected either way, the source and drain being interchangeable. The
current flow consists of electrons moving through the N-Type semiconductor.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
In Figure 11c, a negative potential is applied to the gate regions. The junction
between the P-Type and N-Type regions forms a reversed-biased diode, so no
current flows. However, an electric filed extends into the N-Type bar from the P-
Type regions. This charge forces current carriers (electrons) away from the
region, reducing the amount of the N-Type material for conducting between the
source and the drain.
If the potential applied to the gate is made sufficiently negative (Figure 11d), the
electric field will extend across the whole thickness of the N-Type material.
Hardly any charge carriers will be available for current flow, and the current
available from the drain will drop to a very low value (never to zero, for it is
physically impossible for the channel to close completely).
Changes in the voltage applied to the gate will cause corresponding changes in
the current flowing between the source and the drain, which makes the operation
of the FET very similar to a bipolar transistor. Figure 12 shows a typical JFET.
FLAT SIDE
DRAIN GATE
SOURCE
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

Figure 12

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
2.6.3 CIRCUIT SYMBOL
Figure 13 shows the circuit symbol for an N-Channel and P-Channel JUGFET.
DRAIN
GATE SOURCE
N-CHANNEL JUGFET
DRAIN
GATE SOURCE
P-CHANNEL JUGFET
N-Channel P-Channel JUGFET Circuit Symbol

Figure 13
Table 2 shows the comparisons between N & P-channel JUGFETs.
N-CHANNEL P-CHANNEL
Volts Drain-Source Drain positive wrt Source Drain negative wrt

Source
Majority Carriers Electrons Holes
Bias to decrease drain Gate negative wrt Source Gate positive wrt Source
current
Wrt: With respect to.

Table 2

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
2.6.4 DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
The drain characteristics of an N-Channel depletion-mode JUGFET in the

common source configuration is shown if figure 14.
IDS VGS = -0V
(mA)
7
VGS = -1V
6
5
VGS = -2V
4
3
VGS = -3V
2
VGS = -4V
1
VDS
(VOLTS)
5 10 15 20 25
Drain Characteristics N-Channel JUGFET

Figure 14

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
2.6.5 INSULATED-GATE FET
The insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET) has one, or more, gate

electrode(s) electrically insulated from the channel. In most devices the
insulation is a layer of oxide and the name metal-oxide semicondutcor transistor
(MOST) or MOSFET is commonly used.
In these devices an electric field is produced in the insulating (oxide) layer by a

voltage applied to a metal gate electrode. This electric field controls the number
of charge carries in the semiconductor channel and thus controls the current flow
between the source and drain terminals. The MOSFET is a more versatile device
than the JUGFET and is widely used in integrated circuits as well as discrete
transistors. As well as P and N-channel devices, it is possible to manufacture
MOSFETs to operate either:
1. Depletion-Mode device.
2. Enhancement-Mode device.
2.6.6 DEPLETION MODE MOSFET
In the depletion-mode type, charge carriers are present in the channel at Zero
gate bias and the device is, therefore, conducting. The application of a gate
voltage, which depletes the number of charge carriers in the channel thus
reduces the conductivity and is called reverse gate bias. This type of operation is
similar to that of the JUGFET previously discussed. Because the gate is
insulated from the channel it is also possible to apply the forward gate bias
without drawing gate current. This bias draws more charge carriers into the
channel and results in an increase in conductivity.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
MODULE 4
Figure 15 shows an P-channel Depletion type MOSFET.
GAT E
SOURCE DRAIN
P-C HA N NEL
POS ITIVE
BIAS APPLIED
GAT E
SOURCE DRAIN
P-C HA N NEL
NARROWER
CONDUCTING
CHANNEL
P-channel Depletion Type MOSFET

Figure 15

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
MODULE 4
2.6.7 ENHANCEMENT MODE MOSFET
In the enhancement-mode type, the gate must be forward biased to produce

charge carriers in the channel. These devices are normally of and do not conduct
either at zero gate bias or for reverse gate bias. Figure 16 shows P-channel
enhancement type MOSFET.
GAT E
SOURCE DRAIN
MET AL
OXIDE
SEMICONDUCTO R
NEGATIVE
BIAS APPL IED
GAT E
SOURCE DRAIN
P-channel Enhancement Type MOSFET

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
Figure 16

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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MODULE 4
Figure 17 shows the circuit symbols for P-Channel/N-Channel Depletion

MOSFETS, figure 18 N-Channel/P-Channel Enhancement MOSFETS.
DRAIN
P-CHANNEL
GATE
N-CHANNEL
SOURCE
Depletion Mode MOSFET Circuit Symbols

Figure 17
DRAIN
P-CHANNEL
GATE N-CHANNEL
SOURCE
Enhancement Mode MOSFET Circuit Symbols

Figure 18

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 4.1.3.
uk
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 4 INTEGRATED
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
3 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
3.1 GENERAL
Integrated circuits, or ICs, have changed the entire electronics industry. Before
ICs were developed, all electronic circuits consisted of individual (discrete),
components that were wired together, often requiring a large amount of physical
space. Printed circuit Board (PCB) technology made it possible to reduce the
amount of space required. Electronic circuits can be quite complex, requiring a
large number of components, since discrete components have a fixed size, there
is a practical limitation on the amount of size reduction that can be achieved.
The development of integrated circuit technology has made it possible to

fabricate large numbers of electronic components onto a single silicon chip. As a
result, the physical size of a circuit can be significantly reduced, making it
possible to design circuits and devices that would otherwise be impractical.
ICs are complete circuits containing many transistors, diodes, resistors and
capacitors as may be necessary for the circuit operation. They are encapsulated
in packages that are often no larger than a single discrete transistor. The
technology and materials used in the manufacture of ICs are basically the same
as those used in the manufacture of transistors and other solid-state devices. In
addition, ICs are manufactured for a wide variety of applications and, as a result,
are used throughout the electronics industry.
3.1.1 ADVANTAGES
The small size of the IC is its most apparent advantage. A typical IC can be
constructed on a piece of semiconductor material that is less than 4mm2. Even
when the IC is suitably packaged, it still occupies only a small amount of space.
The small size of the IC also produces other benefits such as they consume less
power than the equivalent conventional circuit. They generate less heat and
therefore generally do not require elaborate cooling or ventilation systems.
ICs are also more reliable than conventional circuits. This greater reliability
result because every component within the IC is a solid-state device and is
permanently connected together with a thin layer of metal. They are not soldered
together like the components in a conventional circuit and a circuit failure due to
faulty connections is less likely to occur.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 4.1.3
uk
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 4 INTEGRATED
ELECTRONIC
engineering FUNDAMENTALS CIRCUITS
3.1.2 DISADVANTAGES
It might appear that the IC has only advantages to offer and no real
disadvantages. Unfortunately, this is not the case, since ICs are an extremely
small device it cannot handle large currents or voltages. High currents generate
heat within the device and small components can be easily damaged if the heat
becomes excessive.
High voltages can break down the insulation between the components in the IC
because the components are very close together. This can result in shorts
between the adjacent components, which would make the IC completely useless.
Therefore, most ICs are low power devices, which have a low operating current
(milliamps) and low voltages (5 20V). Also, most ICs have a power dissipation
range of less than 1 watt.
At the present only four types of component are commonly constructed within an
IC. This makes only a narrow selection of components available, these are:
1. Diode.
2. Transistor.
3. Resistor.
4. Capacitor.
Diodes and transistors are the easiest components to construct and are used
extensively to perform as many functions as possible within each IC. Resistors
and capacitors may also be formed, but it is much more difficult and expensive to
construct these components. The amount of space occupied by a resistor
increases with its value and in order to conserve space, it is necessary to use
resistors with values as low as possible.
Capacitors occupy even more space than resistors and the amount of space
required increases with the value of the capacitor.
Ics cannot be repaired because their internal components cannot be seperated.

When one internal component becomes defective, the whole IC becomes
defective and musty be replaced. This means that good components are often
thrown away with the defective ones. This disadvantage is not as bad as it
sounds, as the task of fault finding is simplified because it is only necessary to
trace the problem to a specific circuit instead of an individual component. This
greatly simplifies the task of maintaining highly complex systems and reduces the
demands on maintenance personnel.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 4.1.3.
uk
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 4 INTEGRATED
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
3.2 IC CONSTRUCTION
There are basically four methods of construction used for ICs. These are:
1. Monolithic.
2. Thin-Film.
3. Thick Film.
4. Hybrid.
3.2.1 MONOLITHIC ICS
The monolithic IC is constructed in basically the same manner as a Bipolar

Transistor, although the overall process requires a few additional steps because
of the greater complexity of the IC. Its fabrication begins with a circular
semiconductor wafer (usually silicon). This wafer is usually very thin (0.015mm
0.3mm) and either 2.5cm or 5cm in diameter. The semiconductor serves as a
base on which the tiny integrated circuits are formed and is commonly referred to
as a Substrate. Figure 1 shows the IC construction.
TER
AME
M DI
2 .5 -5C NUMBER OF ICS FORMED
DEPENDS ON THE SIZE
OF THE WAFER
0.015 - 0.30mm
SILICON WAFER
ONCE THE ICS HAVE

BEEN FORMED, THE
WAFER IS SLICED INTO
INDIVIDUALCHIPS
ICS ARE FORMED

ON THE WAFER
IC Construction
Figure 1

uk
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 4 INTEGRATED
ELECTRONIC
When all of the ICs have been simultaneously formed, the wafer is sliced into
many sections, which are commonly referred to as Chips or Dice. Each chip
represents one complete integrated circuit and contains all the components and
wiring associated with that circuit. Once the ICs have been separated into
individual chips, each IC must be mounted in a suitable package and tested.
3.2.2 BIPOLAR IC CONSTRUCTION
As mentioned earlier, the components that are commonly used in ICs are diodes,
Transistors, resistors and capacitors. Diffusing impurities into selected regions of
a semiconductor wafer (substrate) can form these components. This process
produces PN junctions at specific locations and the basic manner in which these
four components are formed and the manner in which they are interconnected
are shown at Figure 2.
CIRCUIT
TRANSISTOR
CAPACITOR DIODE RESISTOR
ALUMINIUM OR SILICON OXIDE

GOLD METALIZATION P-TYPE SUBSTRATE
FILM
FILM (INSULATION LAYER)
P-TYPE SUBSTRATE
Basic Construction of Bipolar IC

Figure 2

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The circuit shown in figure 2 is a simple circuit consisting of a capacitor, a PN

junction diode, an NPN transistor and a resistor. Operating voltages and currents
can be applied to the circuit through terminals 1,2 and 3 as shown. This circuit
could be easily constructed using four discrete components, however, it can also
be produced as a monolithic IC.
3.2.3 MOS ICS
Not all ICs are constructed using bipolar components, ICs are often designed to
utilize either bipolar transistors or Field-Effect transistors (FETS). The Field
effect transistor is one in which the emitter-collector current is controlled by
voltage rather than by a current. Figure 3 shows the construction and operation
of a MOSFET.
GATE
DRAIN
SOURCE
TERMINAL
SILICON OXIDE TERMINAL GATE
FILM INSULATING TERMINAL
LAYER
N CHANNEL
SOURCE
P or N TYPE SUBSTRATE
DRAIN
DIFFUSED DIFFUSED
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
SOURCE DRAIN
REGION REGION
+10V
CONSTRUCTION
METAL
PLATE
SILICON OXIDE
INSULATION
METAL
OXIDE
N-TYPE P-TYPE N-TYPE

+15V
SILICON SILICON SILICON SEMICONDUCTOR
OPERATION
MOSFET
Figure 3
The FET may be constructed of a channel of either N-type or P-type silicon with a
controlling gate sitting on top. One end of the channel is called the source, and
the other end is called the drain. An N-channel FET has a P-type gate, so that
when a positive voltage ios applied to the gate, the FET is forward biased. There
will be current flow between the source and the drain. When a negative voltage
is applied to the gate, the FET will be reversed biased, and the flow between the
source and the drain will be pinched off.

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The source and drain regions are diffused into the substrate. A thin layer of
silicon oxide is formed over the substarte and the appropriate windows are cut
into it so that metal electrodes ) terminals) can be formed at the proper locations.
Note that the gate terminal is separated from the substrate by an extremely thin
oxide layer, which is only 1 X 10-10 metres thick, but it completely isolates the
gate from the substrate.
3.2.4 THIN-FILM IC
Unlike the monolithic ICs, which are formed within a semiconductor material
(substrate), the thin-film circuit is formed on the surface of an insulating substrate.
In the thin-film circuit, components such as resistors and capacitors are formed
from extremely thin layers of metals and oxides, which are deposited onto a glass
or ceramic substrate. Interconnecting wires are also deposited on the substrate
as thin strips of metal. Components such as diodes and transistors are formed
as separate semiconductor devices and then permanently attached to the
substrate at the appropriate locations.
The substrate on which the thin-film circuit is formed is usually less than 2.5cm2.
Depositing tantalum or nichrome as thin films or strips on the surface of the
substrate forms the resistors. These films are usually less than 0.00254cm thick.
The thickness, length and width of each strip that is formed on the substrate
determine the value of each resistor. The interconnecting conductors are
extremely thin metal strips, which have been deposited on the substrate. Low
resistance metals, such as gold. platinum, or aluminium, are generally used as
conductors. The substrate is made from an insulating material that will provide a
rigid support for the components. Glass or ceramic materials are often used as
substrates. Figure 4 shows a portion of a thin-film circuit.
THIN-FILM
RESISTORS
THIN-FILM
CONDUCTORS
INSULATING
SUBSTRATE
Thin-Film IC
Figure 4

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3.2.5 THICK-FILM ICS
Thick-film ICs components are formed on an insulating substrate by using a

Silk-screen process. In this process, a very fine wire screen is placed over the
substrate and a metalized-ink is forced through the screen using a squeegee.
Only certain portions of the wire screen are open (the remaining portions are filled
with a special emulsion), thus allowing the ink to penetrate and coat the specific
portions of the substrate. A pattern of interconnecting conductors is formed on
the substrate, which is then heated to over 6000C to harden the painted surface
and become low resistance conductors.
Resistors and capacitors are also silk-screened on top of the substrate by forcing
the appropriate materials (in paste form) through the appropriate screen and then
heating the substrate to a high temperature. This process is repeated using
various pastes until the circuit is formed. Components such as diodes and
transistors are formed as separate semiconductor devices and then permanently
attached to the substrate at the appropriate locations.
3.2.6 HYBRID ICS
Hybrid ICs are formed by utilizing various combinations of monolithic, thin-film

and thick film techniques and may in certain circumstances contain discrete
semiconductor components in chip form. Therefore many types of hybrid circuit
arrangements can be produced. A typical hybrid circuit might consist of a thin-
film circuit on which various monolithic ICs have been attached or it could utilize
monolithic ICs thick-film components and discrete diodes and transistors that are
all mounted on a single insulating substrate.
A portion of a hybrid IC is shown at figure 5. An insulated substrate is used to

support the circuit components as shown. The monolithic IC is mounted on the
substrate along with thich-film resistors and a small discrete capacitor. All the
components are interconnected with conductors that are formed on the substrate
using film techniques. The monolithic IC is connected to the conductors with fine
wires that are bonded in place. Thick-film resistors will usually have notches cut
into them to trim their values. The capacitor used in these circuits can be formed
either by using film techniques or miniature devices can be installed between
conductors as shown.

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INSULATING DISCRETE
SUBSTRATE CAPACITOR
INPUT/OUTPUT
TERMINALS
CONDUCTORS
THICK-FILM
RESISTOR
MONOLITHIC
IC
Hybrid IC Construction
Figure 5
3.2.7 IC PACKAGES
Like transistors and other types of solid state components, ICs are mounted in
packages, which protect them from moisture, dust and other types of
contaminations. Many different types of IC packages are available and each type
has its own advantges and disadvantages. The most popular IC package is the
Dual In-Line (DIL) package. The packages also make it easier to install the ICs
in various types of equipment, since each package contains leads which can be
either plugged into matching sockets or plugged into DIL mounting frames.

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Figure 6 shows typical DIL packages.
MONOLITHIC
ICs
INTERCONNECTING
CONDUCTORS
CONNECTING PINS
DIL Packages
Figure 6
The IC package shown in figure 6 contains three monolithic ICs, also a network
of conductors have been formed on the same base that supports the chip.
Various conductor pads on the chips are connected to these conductors with fine
gold wires that have been bonded in place. The conductors in turn are connected
to two rows of connecting pins along the edge of the package. A lid or cover (not
shown) is placed over the opening in the package and soldered into place to
provide an air tight (hermetically sealed) unit.
Integrated circuits may also be mounted in Metal cans that are similar to the
types used to house transistors. The metal can have 8 or more connecting leads
and can used to house either monolithic or hybrid type ICs. The advantage of
these packages is that they may be installed in a variety of ways. Metal cans can
be used over a wide temperature range (-55 - +125C) and are therefore
suitable for military and space applications. Figure 7 shows the DIL and metal
can type of packages.

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TYPICAL MINIATURE
TYPICAL METAL CAN
DUAL IN-LINE (DIL)
IC PACKAGES
PACKAGES
DIL and Metal Can Packages

Figure 7
3.3 TYPES OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
Integrated circuits are placed into two general groups, these are:
1. Digital ICs.
2. Linear ICs.
3.4 DIGITAL ICS
Digital circuits use discrete values (0 or 1) to perform 3 general functions. These

are:
1. AND Function.
2. OR Function.
3. NOT Function.

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Thgese three function are performed by logic circuits that are called the AND, OR
and NOT logic gates. These gates or circuit configurations can be combined to
make decision based on digital input information. In a digital logic gate it is only
possible to have an output of either a 0 or 1.
3.4.1 AND GATE
Figure 8 shows the AND gate truth table and logic circuit and a corresponding
circuit to carry out this function.
A
A.B
B
SYMBOL
A B A.B
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
TRUTH TABLE
AND Gate
Figure 8
The AND gate has an output of 1 only when all of its inputs are equal to 1. This is
similar to a multiplier function since the only possibilities in a digital circuit are 0 X
1 = 0 and 1 X 1 = 1. The schematic circuit in figure 8 shows two switches
connected in series. Unless both switches are closed, there is no current flow to
the output.

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3.4.2 OR GATE
Figure 9 shows the OR gate truth table and logic circuit and a corresponding
A
A+B
B
SYMBOL
A B A+B
TRUTH TABLE SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
OR Gate
Figure 9
3.4.3 NOT GATE
The NOT gate provides an output that is always the opposite the input. This is
called inversion or 180 phase shift. Thus, the NOT gate is commonly referred to
as an inverter. In the bipolar transistor, the common emitter amplifier
configuration was the only one capable of inverting the input so is used to carry
out the NOT function.

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Figure 10 shows the NOT gate truth table and logic circuit and a corresponding
A A
A A 1 0
0 1
+VE TRUTH TABLE
SYMBOL
OUTPUT
INPUT
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
NOT Gate
Figure 10
3.4.4 COMBINATION LOGIC CIRCUITS
The three basic logic circuits can be combined into a single decision making
circuit with more than 1 distinct outputs. Consider a circuit that compares two
inputs and calculates three outputs as shown below.
Output X1 Input A < Input B
Output X2 Input A > Input B
Output X3 Input A = Input B

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A combined logic circuit that would carry out the function is shown at Figure 11.
A B X1 X2 X3
TRUTH TABLE
A
X1 (A<B)
B
X3 (A=B)
X2 (A>B)
Combination Logic Circuit

Figure 11

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3.5 LINEAR (OR ANALOGUE) IC
Figure 12 shows the type of analogue signal handled by the Linear Integrated
Circuit.
0 TIME
Analogue Signal
Figure 1
3.6 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP AMP)
The integrated circuit operational amplifier is one of the most useful and versatile
electronic devices available today. The name operational amplifier is not new; it
refers to a type of amplifier originally used in analogue computing to perform
mathematical operations e.g. multiplication or division by a constant. The
modern integrated circuit device can be adapted (by feedback) to perform most
general-purpose amplifier duties, as well as its use in mathematical operations.

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The Op Amp can consist of many stages of amplification to ensure high gain, and
will be arranged to have two input terminals, two power supply terminals and an
output terminal. In addition it will normally have terminals for setting the output to
zero when the input is zero.
The Op Amp consists of a transistor circuit of considerable complexity, which has

been found so useful that the whole circuit is manufactured on a single piece of
silicon, fitted with input and output leads, and covered in plastic. It is the first
Integrated Circuit, and can be treated just as if it were a new component.
Figure 2 shows a type 741 Op Amp and circuit.
POWER
SUPPLY
(+)
INVERTING 7
2
INPUT 8
VOLTAGE
6 OUTPUT
1
NON-INVERTING
3 4
INPUT
5
POWER
SUPPLY
()
NON-INVERTING INVERTING
V INPUT INPUT
4 3 2 1
5 6 7 8
GROUND VOLTAGE V+
OUTPUT
Op Amp and Circuit

Figure 2

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In the Op Amp, two pins are marked supply + and supply - and are connected to
the amplifiers power supply. The device also has two inputs, the Inverting input
(V) identified by a negative symbol. A Non inverting input (VN) identified by a
positive sign and a single output (VO).
Note: The negative/Positive signs on the inputs does not mean that
negative/positive signals are applied, but identify the inverting and non-inverting
terminals.
The V, VN and VO are the values of the voltages applied to the inputs and
obtained form the output. These voltages are joined by the equation:
VO = AO (VN V)
Here we have a slight problem. Voltages are measured between one point in a
circuit and another. Usually one point is the negative or zero line. When
calculating VN & V it does not matter were the reference is as long as it is the
same for both voltages. When we obtain the output VO we need to know the
reference point used by the Op Amp. This is not the zero line but a voltage
halfway between the positive supply and the zero line.
The other unknown quantity in the equation is AO, the Open Loop Gain. This
gain is constant for each particular Op Amp and is the ratio between two
voltages. Open Loop gain in Op Amps is normally 105.

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The following example will make use of the equation. Figure 3 shows an Op Amp
with an open loop voltage gain of 400, connected between a 12V supply.
+12V
GAIN = 400
VOUT
5.88V
5.87V
ZERO LINE
Op Amp
Figure 3
V = 5.88V VN = 5.87 AO = 400

Using the equation:
VO = AO(VN - V)
VO = 400(5.87 5.88)
= 400(-0.01)
= -4V
The voltage is relative to a point halfway between +12v and zero, that is 6V. The
output voltage is therefore 4V below 6V, i.e. 2V. What would the output be if the
input values were reversed?
Ans:.

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3.7 THE UNITY GAIN FOLLOWER
The somewhat lengthy term operational amplifier will now be dropped and it will
be referred to, as most people do, simply as the op amp. The simplest op amp
with feedback configuration is the unity gain follower, which has a direct
connection from output to inverting terminal, and the input is applied to the non-
inverting terminal as shown in Figure 4. For convenience, power supplies will not
be shown in these circuits.
VOUT
VIN
Unity Gain Follower

Figure 4
Consider the circuit in Figure 4 and assume that vin is a small positive dc voltage.
With its enormous gain the output will probably saturate positive as soon as vin is
applied. But the output is connected directly to the input inverting terminal, and
being much greater than vin will drive the output to saturate negative, which is fed
back to the input inverting terminal to drive the output to saturate positive again.
It would appear that the output voltage is slamming from positive saturation to
negative saturation and back again at a rapid rate. This of course is not the case
at all, since in its travel from one extreme to the other, the output will arrive at the
same value as the input, and when this is fed back to the inverting input terminal,
the input difference voltage will be zero and there will be no signal to amplify.
Thus vout holds a value equal to vin.

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What has happened here is very important, since it applies to all op amps with
negative feedback circuits, and it should be noted that feedback from the output
to the inverting input terminal causes the output to take on a value which reduces
the input difference voltage to zero.
Since the output of the unity gain follower is the same as the input, it may, on first
consideration, have no practical application. As previously stated, even if the
feedback caused the output to equal the input, the input and output impedances
remain vastly different. Herein lies its practical application, as an impedance
matching device, and it serves as an excellent buffer stage preventing
interaction between a signal source and load.
3.8 THE FOLLOWER WITH GAIN
By reducing the amount of voltage fed back to the inverting terminal, the gain of
the amplifier can be raised above unity, and effectively multiply the input by a
factor determined by the amount of feedback. The reduction in feedback voltage
may be achieved by a potential divider arranged as shown in Figure 5.
R2
OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS
ATTENUATED BY THE
RATIO:
R1: R1 + R2 VOUT
VIN R1
BEFORE BEING APPLIED
TO THE INVERTING INPUT
Follower with Gain

Figure 5

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3.9 THE INVERTER
The circuit incorporates a sign change between input and output. This is
achieved by bringing the input into the inverting terminal along with the feedback
loop, and by earthing the non-inverting terminal, as shown in Figure 6. The
resistors R1 and R2 still maintain the multiplication (or division) factor.
R2
R1
VIN
VOUT
The Inverter
Figure 5

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3.10 THE SUMMING AMPLIFIER
As the title implies, this is an adding device. The circuit can take any number of
voltage inputs, and the output voltage is simply the sum of these inputs.
The circuit in Figure 7 has a feedback loop containing a resistor Rf and the facility
to sum three input voltages.
RF
R1
V1IN
R2
V2IN
R3
V3IN
RF = R1 = R2 = R3 VOUT
VOUT = V1IN + V2IN + V3IN
Summing Amplifier
Figure 7
It must again be emphasised that using negative feedback, the feedback loop
forces the output to take on a value, which reduces the input difference voltage to
zero.
The input voltages V1, V2 and V3 are supplied to the inverting (-) terminal via
resistors R1, R2 and R3. Since the input difference voltage is zero, the potential at
the inverting terminal and hence the junction of R1, R2 and R3 is the same as the
non-inverting (+) terminal, which is earth. Also, since the inputs are applied to the
inverting terminal, the output voltage will experience an inversion (sign change).
The output of the circuit, then, is the sum of the input voltages. Note again that
inversion takes place due to the inputs being applied to the inverting terminal.

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3.11 THE DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
Figure 8 shows how two inputs can be subtracted. This circuit differs from
previous types with negative feedback in that the non-inverting terminal is not at
earth. As before, however, the negative feedback drives the output to a value,
which reduces the input difference voltage to zero.
RF
R1 = RF
R2 = R3
R1
V
R2
VN
VO
R3 V OUT = (VN - V)
Difference Amplifier
Figure 8

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3.12 THE INTEGRATOR
This circuit performs the calculus operation of integration. An operational

amplifier with negative feedback applied via a capacitor (instead of a resistor) will
perform the mathematical operation of integration (see Figure 8). Such circuits
are widely used in analogue computing - e.g. if the input voltage uses the
analogue of acceleration (m/s/s), the output voltage is the analogue of speed
(m/s). Another use of this type of circuit is to produce a triangular (or ramp)
waveform from a square wave (or step) input; this technique is used in digital
voltmeters and some forms of analogue/digital converters. Figure 9 shows an
Integrator.
C1
R1
VIN
VOUT
Integrator
Figure 9

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3.13 THE DIFFERENTIATOR
With negative feedback applied through a resistor and the input signal through a
capacitor, the circuit will perform the mathematical operation of differentiation.
The output voltage then takes up a value proportional to the rate of change of the
input voltage - e.g. if the input voltage is the analogue of distance travelled
(miles), the output is the analogue of average speed (miles per hour). The circuit
can also be used to produce pips (e.g. calibration markers) when the input signal
is a square wave. (To prevent high frequency instability, it is usual to connect a
small capacitor (e.g. 10 F) across the feedback resistor to reduce gain at
frequencies above the required operating frequency). Figure 10 shows a
differentiating circuit.
R1
C1
VIN
VOUT
Differentiating Circuit
Figure 10
As in all previous circuits with negative feedback loops, the output voltage takes
on a value, which reduces the input difference voltage to zero, and a virtual earth
exists on the inverting terminal. Vin is across C and -vout across R.

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3.14 THE COMPARATOR
A comparator is a device, which compares two input voltages and indicates at the
output, which of the two is the larger. Basically, the circuits use a differential
input operational amplifier without feedback: so the output takes up either the
positive or negative supply level depending on which of the inputs is higher. See
Figure 11.
WHEN VIN < VREF THEN VOUT = -V MAX
WHEN VIN > VREF THEN VOUT = +V MAX

+VE
VREF
+ VOUT
VIN
The Comparator
Figure 11

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3.15 THE IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Although the characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier are unattainable,

modern integrated circuit types can provide an extremely close approximation.
The ideal characteristics are:
* A very large open loop gain, near infinite,
* Output unaffected by signal frequency, no signal phase shift with change

in frequency,
* A very large (infinite) input impedance so that the amplifier takes negligible
current,
* A very small output impedance so that the output of the amplifier is

unaffected by loading,
* Output voltage is zero for zero input voltage (offset zero applied).
Naturally, no practical operational amplifier will be this perfect, which means of

course that there will be small operational errors with such devices. Therefore,
the closer to the ideal properties the amplifier is made, the smaller will be these
errors.

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MODULE 4 PRINTED CIRCUIT

ELECTRONIC
engineering FUNDAMENTALS BOARDS
4 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

Aircraft electronic systems necessitate the interconnection of many components;
in the past this was done by soldered or crimped terminations. With the
development of circuit technology and micro miniaturisation, weight saving and
simplification of installation and maintenance became needful and these needs
were met by the development of the printed circuit board.
4.1 CONSTRUCTION
Printed circuit board is a laminated paper or fibreglass board coated on one side
with a thin layer of copper. The areas of copper, called 'lands', required to
connect the components are marked out by painting over the copper, and the
remaining copper is etched away by a solution of ferric chloride. Holes are then
drilled in the board for the component leads. The advantage is that the copper
strips can be any shape and few additional wires are required. Industry can
produce printed circuit boards in large numbers very cheaply so they have
become the standard circuit construction method. Figure 1 shows the front face
of a PCB, with Figure 2 showing the rear face.
BASE
BOARD
FRONT
Printed Circuit Board

Figure 1

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ELECTRONIC
CIRCUIT MODULE
DESIGNATION
(E.G. SIGNAL
IC1 IC2 IC5
SELECTOR)
CIRCUIT
REFERENCE
C2
IC3 IC4
INTEGRATED
CIRCUIT CHIPS IC6
FINGER OR
REAR EDGE CONNECTOR
Printed Circuit Board

Figure 2

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ELECTRONIC
4.2 MULTI-LAYER CIRCUITS
In order to save weight and space, and to provide for the interconnection of
integrated circuits (which are a feature of a large majority of electronic equipment)
the relevant circuits are assembled as a multi-layer moulded package. This
consists of three or more single and/or double-sided printed boards and insulating
layers of impreg material.
4.3 HANDLING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
Since various types of semi-conductor components are mounted on printed circuit

boards, care must always be taken in handling techniques.
General techniques are as follows: -
a) Do not remove or replace units with electrical power applied.
b) Do not touch the connectors, leads or edge connectors of circuit boards

unnecessarily.
c) Use conductive packaging, shorting plugs, bands or wire when provided or

prescribed by the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual.
d) Pay strict attention to stores procedures to ensure that protective

packaging is not removed during any goods-inwards inspection.
Module 5 details procedures for handling Static Sensitive Devices.

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ELECTRONIC SERVOMECHANISMS
5 SERVOMECHANISMS
A servomechanism (servo) is a type of control system whose output is the
position of a shaft. They may be controlled remotely when used in conjunction
with synchro devices. Synchros themselves transmit position information but
cannot amplify torque to move heavy loads. Used with servomechanisms, an
output to control such a load can be obtained to give a desired result in relation to
an input.
5.1 OPEN LOOP SYSTEM
In this system, an input is applied and an output obtained. Figure 1 shows an

example; assume an aircraft rudder controlled by an open loop system.
DEMAND
DEMAND
INPUT SIGNAL
AMP
TRANSDUCER
RESPONSE
MOTOR LOAD
Open Loop System

Figure 1
The demand, made by the pilot on the rudder bar, is picked up by the transducer
which converts it to an electrical signal; i.e. the demand signal. This signal is
amplified and fed to the motor, which responds by moving the load; i.e. the
rudder. There is no positional feedback and the pilot does not know if the rudder
has adopted the position requested.

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5.2 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
In the closed loop system, the demand is made in the same way. In a basic
system, positional feedback would be given to the pilot who would make
adjustments accordingly but this is not practical with systems such as aircraft
flying controls. Figure 2 shows a closed loop automatic system.
ERROR
DETECTOR
INPUT SERVO
AMP LOAD
TRANSDUCER MOTOR
ERROR
SIGNAL
POSITION
FEEDBACK OUTPUT
POSITION
TRANSDUCER
Closed Loop System

Figure 2
An output position transducer has been added to the servomotor and this feeds
back any difference between input demand and output to an error detector. The
error detector outputs an error signal to the amplifier to make any positional
corrections necessary at the servo motor and thus the load (or rudder) is
positioned as demanded.
If for example the pilot wanted to move the rudder 5, a demand is made at the
rudder bar and this is converted to a voltage at the transducer, say +5 volts. The
error detector immediately gives an output signal corresponding to +5 volts input
and this is amplified to drive the motor, moving the rudder. The output position
transducer converts the output position to an electrical signal, which corresponds
to the new position of the rudder. As this happens, this signal, (feedback), is fed
back to the error detector until the demanded position is achieved and the input is
negated. Now, there is no error signal and no output. The feedback has reached
-5 volts.

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5.3 FOLLOW UP
If in our example the rudder were to be displaced from its demanded position, or
from the optimum speed at which the demanded position may be achieved, an
error signal occurs. In the way described, there is a feedback signal and the
system returns to its demanded position or speed. This process is called 'follow
up'.
5.4 TYPES OF SERVO
There are two main classes of servomechanism - remote position control (RPC)
servos and velocity control servos (velodynes).
a) RPC servos. These are used to control the angular, or linear position of a
load. A typical example of the use of a RPC servo is the control of the
direction in which a radar scanner is pointing.
b) Velodynes. These are used to control the speed of a load. In this case,
the speed of the driving motor is made proportional to the input demand
(usually a voltage). A typical example of the use of a velodyne is the
control of a radar scanner, which is required to rotate with a constant
angular velocity. It may be necessary to change the velocity of rotation
from time to time and the velodyne must be capable of doing this and
maintaining the new velocity set by the input demand.

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5.5 FEEDBACK
5.5.1 POSITIONAL FEEDBACK
Positional feedback is obtained from transducers positioned at the output. The

feedback element, or transducer, converts the output shaft angle into a signal
suitable for operating the error detector. In this case a voltage signal. The
simplest form of element is a R-pot, or a helical potentiometer similar to that used
as a control element. In practice, helical potentiometers are used since they give
360 coverage, which a R-pot cannot provide. Figure 3 shows positional
feedback in a dc system.
CONTROL
ERROR
ELEMENT
DETECTOR SERVO
MOTOR
LOAD
VELOCITY TACHO
FEEDBACK GEN
POSITIONAL FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK ELEMENT
Positional Feedback
Figure 3

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Figure 4 shows a R-Pot & Helical Potentiometer
Ei
i
PROPORTIONAL
TO i
E
E
R-POT
Ei
PROPORTIONAL
TO i
HELICAL POTENTIOMETER
R-Pot & Helical Potentiometer

Figure 4
In ac systems, other components are used to provide positional feedback.

Synchros are employed in some servomechanisms. These will be discussed
later.

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5.6 ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (RVDT)
The RVDT is an inductance transmitter having a primary stator coil, an iron rotor
coil and two secondary stator coils. Figure 5 shows the operation of a RVDT.
PRIMARY
COIL
L3
IRON CO RE
CONNECTED TO
MECHANICAL
INPUT
L1 L2
R S T R S T
1. ZERO POSITION 2. ROTATED CLOCKWISE
R S T
3. ROTATED COUNTER CLOCKWISE
RVDT Operation
Figure 5
The mechanical input changes the position of the iron core. The position of the
core changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary
stator coils. When the input rotates, one of the secondary coils receives more

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magnetic flux and this induces a higher voltage in that coil. The other secondary
coil receives less magnetic flux, so a lower voltage is induced. The difference
between voltages induced in the secondary stator coils is proportional to the
rotated angle. This is an AC Ratio Signal.
Figure 5.1: The position of the iron core is zero. The magnetic field induced by
primary coil L3 is equally divided between L1 and L2. Therefore the
voltage R-T is zero.
Figure 5.2: The iron core is turned clockwise. Now there is more coupling
between L3 and L2, and less coupling between L3 and L1. The
voltage between T and S increases and the voltage between R and
S decreases.
Figure 5.3: The iron core turned counter-clockwise. Now there is more
coupling between L3 and L1, and less coupling between L3 and L2.
The voltage between T and S decreases, while the voltage between
R and S increases.
The difference between figure 5.2 and 5.3 is that the output-voltage between R
and T is of opposite phase. The output measured between R and T is an AC
RATIO signal.
The Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) is also an inductance

transmitter with similar components and similar in operation but of course, the
movement detected is linear and not rotary.

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5.7 CAPACITANCE TRANSMITTER
An example of a capacitance transmitter can be seen in a simple fuel gauging

system as in Figure 6.
TANK UNIT
LOOP
IS A
EMPTY LOOP
IB B
REF C
FULL
2 - PHASE DISCRIMINATION
MOTOR STAGE
AMPLIFIER
STAGE
INDICATOR
REF
PHASE AMPLIFIER UNIT
Capacitance Transmitter
Figure 6
This system depends upon the comparison of two capacitance values. One in
Loop A, which is the variable capacitance of a tank unit and the other in Loop B,
which is fixed. A current is developed in each loop; IS in loop A; IB in loop B. The
two loops form a bridge with resistor R across it. If the tank is full, then current IS
is the greater. With the tank empty, IS falls so that IB is the greater.
Note: The currents act in opposite directions so that a potential is developed

across resistor R of a polarity dependent on the direction of current flow and of a
magnitude dependent on the size of the current. This signal is transmitted to an
amplifier, which powers a 2-phase motor to drive an indicator and a balance
potentiometer.

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When the balance potentiometer moves as a result of change in fuel level, it

adjusts IB, rebalancing the bridge formed by loop A and loop B. Now, no current
flows through resistor R, no signal is developed across R and the new fuel level is
displayed at the indicator.
5.8 VELOCITY FEEDBACK
The inherent friction of a basic servomechanism is very small and so the device
may be able to oscillate fairly freely. This means that the load may oscillate
about its final required position, an effect known as 'hunting'. The time taken for
the load to come to rest at the required new position is called the 'response time'
and ideally will be as short as possible. A process known as 'damping' achieves
the desired response time. Figure 7 shows graphs of the results of different
degrees of damping.
OUTPUT
UNDERDAMPED
RESPONSE o
o REQUIRED
RESPONSE
INPUT
DEMAND i
&
OUTPUT o
o OVERDAMPED
RESPONSE
SUDDEN CHANGE
IN INPUT DEMAND i
TIME
Velocity Feedback
Figure 7
It can be seen from this that excessive oscillation takes place if the device is
underdamped, while overdamping results in too long a response time. Viscous
friction damping by using a mechanical brake or eddy current damping are
possible answers to the damping problem but are rarely used due to their
inefficiencies. Velocity feedback damping is a more effective method and uses a
signal proportional to the velocity, or rate of movement of the output shaft, as a
feedback signal to compensate for oscillation of the load. Tacho-generators are
used to obtain this feedback signal.

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5.9 DC TACHO-GENERATOR
The dc tacho-generator is mounted on the output shaft of the servomechanism so

that it is rotating at the same speed as the load. The dc tacho-generator is a
normal small dc generator with a separately excited field. It will, therefore,
produce a dc voltage, which is directly proportional to the speed at which it is
driven and whose polarity depends upon the direction of rotation.
5.10 AC TACHO-GENERATOR
The ac tacho-generator, used to provide velocity feedback damping in ac servo

systems, is mounted on the output shaft so that it rotates at the same speed as
the load. The ac tacho-generator is usually a drag-cup generator, which
produces an alternating voltage of the same frequency as the ac supply.
However, the amplitude of the voltage depends upon the speed of rotation and
the phase of the voltage leads or lags the ac supply, depending upon the
direction of rotation.
In an automatic RPC servo, there is no operator and the braking required is

produced by attaching a tacho-generator to the output shaft as shown in Figure 8
below.
ERROR = i - O
O O
i CONTROLLER
SERVO TACHO
& LOAD
MOTOR GENERATOR
AMPLIFIER
NEGATIVE TO
O ERROR SIGNAL
O
POSITIONAL FEEDBACK
VELOCITY FEEDBACK
VOLTAGE PROPORTIONAL
TO SPEED OF OUTPUT CONTROLS THE
SHAFT AMOUNT OF
VELOCITY FEEDBACK
A.C. Tacho-Generator
Figure 8

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The tacho-generator produces a voltage proportional to the angular velocity of the

output shaft. A suitable fraction of this voltage is fed back to the input of the
controller and amplifier in opposition to the error signal, which is produced in the
usual way. This is negative feedback, also known as velocity feedback.
5.11 SYNCHROS
5.11.1 INTRODUCTION
AC transmission systems are generally known as synchros because of their

synchronous action in reproducing the angular movement of a shaft. As
mentioned previously, they cannot transmit torque to any appreciable degree but
can be used in conjunction with servomechanisms.
5.12 TORQUE SYNCHRO
5.12.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The principle of a synchro is that of the transformer, where the primary winding is
wound onto a rotor and is rotated with respect to a fixed stator winding. The size
and phase of the output voltage is dependent on the direction and angular
displacement between the primary and secondary windings.
The torque synchro comprises two electrically similar units: the transmitter (TX)
and the receiver (TR) which are interconnected by transmission lines.
The TX and TR have very similar construction. Each has a rotor carrying a single
winding concentrically mounted in a stator of three windings, the axes of which
are 120 apart. It should be noted that the TX and TR torque synchros are not
identical. The difference is that the TR synchro has an oscillation damper added,
so that when its rotor rotates to a given position, it does not oscillate as it comes
to rest.
The rotors of both TX and TR synchros are energized from the ac supply and
produce an alternating flux which links with their corresponding stators S1, S2 and
S3. This process is the normal transformer action, with the rotors corresponding
to the transformer primary winding and the stators to the secondary windings.
Consider the case when the two rotors are not aligned. The three voltages
induced in each of the two sets of stator windings are different. Currents
therefore flow between the two stators and a torque is produced in each synchro
which is directed in such a way that the two rotors must align themselves.
Normally, the TX rotor position is controlled by the input shaft, while the TR rotor
is free to turn, so it is the one which aligns itself with the TX rotor. In this way, any
movement of the TX rotor due to movement of the input shaft is repeated
synchronously by movement of the receiver rotor.

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Torque synchros are used for the transmission of angular position information
and flight instrument systems is a typical application. Figure 9 shows a Torque
Synchro and circuit symbol.
S1 S1
INPUT S2 S3 OUTPUT S2
S3
SHAFT SHAFT
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
STATOR
FIELD
S1
ROTOR R1
S2
FIELD
R2
S3
CURRENT
FLOW
Torque Synchro
Figure 9

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Figure 10 shows the construction of a torque synchro.
SHAFT
BEARING
STATOR
WINDINGS
COILS
SHELL
CORE SLIP
RINGS
LEADS TO
SLIP RINGS
LOWER END STATOR ROTOR

CAP LEADS LEADS
STATOR ROTOR COMPLETE
ASEMBLY
Torque Synchro Construction

Figure 10

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5.13 CONTROL SYNCHRO
The basic control synchro system has two units; a synchro control transmitter
(CX) and a synchro control transformer (CT) connected as shown in Figure 11.
S1 S1
CX CT
A.C.
SUPPLY
S2 S3 S2
S3
A.C. M
INPUT SUPPLY
SHAFT
SERVO
MOTOR
Control Synchro
Figure 11
5.13.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The CX synchro is similar to that used in the torque synchro system. The control
transformer has a stator, which in design and appearance resemble the synchro
units already discussed but with high impedance coils to limit the alternating
currents through the coils. Further differences in the CT are that the rotor winding
has its coils wound so that no torque is produced between it and the stator
magnetic fields and the rotor is not energized by the supply voltage applied to the
rotor of the control synchro.
The CT rotor acts as an inductive winding for determining the phase and
magnitude of error signal voltages. The signals, after amplification, are fed to a
two-phase motor, which is mechanically coupled to the CT rotor. A control
synchro system is at electrical zero when the rotor of the CT is at 90 with respect
to the CX rotor. This is the situation as shown in Figure 10 above.

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If the input shaft is rotated and the CX rotor is disturbed, voltages are induced in
the CX stator and currents flow down the transmission lines to the stator windings
S1, S2 and S3 of the CT. A magnetic flux is produced, depending on the amount
of displacement of the CX rotor and the orientation of its displacement. This flux
links with the rotor of CT, inducing a voltage into it, again depending on the
amount, or rate of displacement, and its orientation.
The voltage, or error voltage, representing the electrical difference between the
rotors of CX and CT, is then amplified and passed to the control phase of a two-
phase motor. The ac reference phase supply is fixed. The motor now rotates.
Its direction depends on the phase of the error signal, as can be seen from Figure
12.
APPLIED VOLTAGE
CLOCKWISE ROTATION ANTI-CLOCKWISE ROTATION

VOLTAGE IN-PHASE VOLTAGE OUT-OF-PHASE
Phase Error Signal

Figure 12
As it rotates, the motor drives the rotor of CT in such a direction as to reduce the
error voltage to zero and the new position is reached. By using the error signal
amplified by a servo amplifier, a servomotor can be driven to move a control
surface as in Figure 11.

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5.14 DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO
There are two types of differential synchro system:
Torque.
Control.
In each, a special type of synchro is inserted between the synchros of the basic
torque or control systems. It is called a differential synchro and differs from the
basic synchros in that it has a three-phase stator and rotor. In a torque
differential system it is abbreviated to TDX and in a control differential system,
CDX. The inclusion of this synchro between a torque transmitter and receiver or
control transmitter and transformer permits an additional input to be algebraically
added to, or subtracted from, the system. The layout of a differential synchro and
its circuit symbol are shown at Figure 13.
STATOR
S1 S3
R1 R3
R2
ROTOR
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
S1
S2
R1
R2 S2
R3
S3
Differential Synchro
Figure 13

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Figure 14 shows the construction of a differential synchro
STATOR
CONNECTIONS
STATOR
WINDINGS
ROTOR
ASSEMBLY
STATOR
ASSEMBLY
ROTOR
COILS
SKEW CUT TO
ENABLE SMOOTHER
RUNNING
Differential Synchro Construction

Figure 14

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5.15 TORQUE DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO
Figure 15 shows a differential synchro system set up for the SUBTRACTION of

two inputs.
60
15
60 45
45
TX TR
TDX
INPUT INPUT OUTPUT

SHAFT 60 SHAFT 15 SHAFT
1 2
Torque Differential Synchro

Figure 15
Note that the rotors of the normal transmitter TX and receiver TR are supplied in
parallel with the single-phase ac supply. The stator windings of the TX are
connected to the stator windings of the TDX and its three rotor windings are
connected to the three-stator windings of the TR. The rotor of the TDX is not
energized by the ac supply.
The circuit is such that one input shaft turns the TX rotor and the second input
shaft drives the TDX rotor. The TDX receives an electrical signal corresponding
to a particular angular position of the TX rotor, which it modifies by an amount
corresponding to the angular position of its own rotor. This modified signal
appears at the TDX output and is transmitted to the receiver, where it produces
an angular flux, which is the difference of the rotor angles of the two transmitters
TX and TDX.
If the TDX rotor is locked in one position, the TX/TR chain acts as a normal
torque synchro system with a transformer placed between TX and TR.

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5.16 CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO
Figure 16 illustrates a control differential synchro system.
CX CDX CT
ERROR
SIGNAL
INPUT INPUT OUTPUT

SHAFT1 SHAFT2 SHAFT
1 2
Control Differential Synchro

Figure 16
As with the straight control synchro system, the ac supply is only applied to the
transmitter rotor. The transformer rotor produces an error signal, which after
amplification is applied to a motor, causing the CT rotor to move. Apart from
these differences the action of the control differential transmitter is the same as
for the torque differential synchro system.
Torque differential synchros have been used to combine a direction finding loop
reading and a compass reading, in navigation systems, to give a true bearing.
Control differential synchros, combined with servomotors, are used for moving
much heavier loads such as radar scanners where the subtraction or addition of
two inputs may be necessary.

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5.17 RESOLVER SYNCHRO
This type of synchro is used to convert voltages, which represent the

CARTESIAN co-ordinates of a point, into POLAR co-ordinates and vice versa.
5.17.1 POLAR AND CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES
A vector, representing an alternating voltage, can be defined in terms of r and

the angle it makes with the X-axis: angle (). These are the polar co-ordinates of
the vector written as r/. Figure 17 shows the vector diagram for Polar and
Cartesian co-ordinates.
POLAR CO-ORDINATES = r/
CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES X = r COS
CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES Y = r SIN
r Y
Polar & Cartesian Co-ordinates

Figure 17

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5.17.2 RESOLVER SYNCHRO OPERATION
The resolver synchro consists of a stator and rotor, each having two windings
arranged in phase quadrature as shown in Figure 18.
S1
R1
R3 S4
S3 R4
R2
ROTOR STATOR
S2 R1 S1
INPUT SHAFT
R2 S2
a
R3 R4 S3 S4
Resolver Synchro
Figure 18
Figure 16b represents the resolver differently for ease of explanation. The
resolver has two coils, R1 R2 and R3 R4 at right angles to each other and attached
to an input shaft. The stator consists of two coils S1 S2 and S3 S4, also placed at
right angles to each other.

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5.17.3 CONVERSION FROM POLAR TO CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES
For this purpose, one of the resolver coils is short-circuited, say R3 R4, and the
other, R1 R2, has an alternating voltage applied to it. The magnitude of this
voltage (r) and the angle () through which both rotor coils are turned, represent
the polar co-ordinates r/. Figure 19 shows a resolver synchro to carry out this
function.
MAX
VOLTS
ROTOR FLUX STATOR

R1 S1
R2 S2
R COS
90 180 270 360

R3 R4 S3 S4
NO
VOLTS
R SIN
Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates

Figure 19
Consider firstly that the rotor shaft position is such that the R1 R2 coil magnetic
field links completely with the stator winding S1 S2, i.e. the coils are aligned. The
maximum voltage will therefore be induced in coil S1 S2. Since the stator coil S3
S4 is at right angle to stator coil S1 S2, there will be no voltage developed across it
due to R1 R2 coil's magnetic field. When the shaft is rotated at constant speed
through 90, the rotor coil R1 R2 is now in phase quadrature to stator S1 S2, which
has zero volts induced in it. However, R1 R2 rotor coil is now aligned with stator

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coil S3 S4 and this now has maximum voltage induced in it. As the shaft
continues to rotate, a cosine voltage wave is developed across S1 S2 stator and a
sine voltage wave across S3 S4 stator coil.
r cos and r sin summed together result from the input voltage at R1 R2 and
rotor rotation r/. The result represents the cartesian co-ordinates.
5.17.4 CONVERSION FROM CARTESIAN TO POLAR CO-ORDINATES
In this arrangement, there are two voltage inputs and these represent the
cartesian co-ordinates. They are VX = r cos and VY = r sin (Refer Figure 15).
VX is input to S1 S2; VY is input to S3 S4. The two together develop an alternating
magnetic flux representing the cartesian co-ordinates in the stator. R1 R2 is
connected to an amplifier, which drives the output load and the rotor in such a
direction as to null the rotor and stop the motor. R3 R4 has a voltage induced in it
dependent on the value of the alternating flux. Its value may be calculated using
Pythagoras' Theorum VY + VX . Figure 20 shows the layout for performing
the above.
R1
S1
S2
R2
SM
VX = r COS
TO LOAD
S3 S4 R3 R4
VY = r SIN VY 2 + VX2
S4 S2
S3 R3
S1 R1
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
R4 R2
Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates

Figure 20

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5.17.5 USE OF RESOLVER SYNCHROS
The ability to develop receiver signals at 90 is used, for example, in VOR

systems, ADF systems using a non-rotating loop, in autopilots and in flight
directors.
5.18 E AND I BAR TRANSMITTER
Figure 21a shows an E and I bar transmitter. These devices convert mechanical
movements into electrical signals (transducer) and are used in various systems
as required. Figure 19a shows an E and I bar as applied to a servo-altimeter.
A.C.
EXCITATION
SUPPLY
RESULTANT
WAVEFORM
a b
E & I Bar Transmitter

Figure 21

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The E-bar has a coil wound round the centre limb. This coil is supplied by an ac
excitation supply. A magnetic flux is set up within the E-bar and when the I-bar
is equidistant from the outer limbs of the E-bar, the waveforms transmitted are
equal and opposite (Figure 21b). No output results. If the I-bar is moved (in this
case by capsules) one end of the I-bar is brought in closer proximity to the
opposite limb of the E-bar. The air gap here is reduced, the magnetic field
strengthens and the signal from the upper limb coil is increased. (Figure 21b).
The opposite end of the I-Bar moves further away from its associated E-bar
limb, and the resultant signal is weaker. In the case of the servo-altimeter,
moving the E -bar back to the position nulls the signal so that no signal is
produced.

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 1

3.6.3 Circuit Symbol ................................................................ 19

Page 2 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

6.6 ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (RVDT) ................ 6

Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 3

Page 4 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

1.1.1 INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 1

uk CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.1

Figure 2 shows current flow in an intrinsic semi-conductor. The electrons

1.1.2 EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Intrinsic semi-conductors are poor conductors. By adding an impurity to the

Page 2 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 3

uk CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.1

1.2 THE HALL EFFECT

When experimenting in 1879 with current flowing in a strip of metal, E M Hall

An experiment, making use of what is known as the Hall Effect, can be

POSITIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (HOLES)

NEGATIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS)

The Hall Effect

Page 4 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 5

uk CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.1

HALL EFFECT GENERATOR

Hall Effect Sensors

Page 6 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

By doping a semi-conductor so that there is N type material at one end and P

Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 7

uk CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.1

Page 8 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

Junction Diode Reversed/Forward Biased

Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 9

uk CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.1

1.4 DIODE SYMBOL

NO CURRENT CURRENT FLOW

1.5 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Maximum permissible forward current (mA).

2. Maximum voltage drop (V) at nominal operating current (mA).

3. Typical reverse current (A).

4. Maximum permissible reverse voltage (V).

Page 10 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

Silicon Diode Characteristics

Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 11

uk CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.1

Germanium Diode Characteristics

1.6 DIODES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Page 12 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

1. Low resistance to current flow in the

2. High resistance to current flow in the

A.C. INPUT D.C. OUTPUT

Basic Rectifier Circuit

Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09 Page 13

uk CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.1

Page 14 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09

Silicon Rectifier Diodes

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uk CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4.1.1

1.9 RECTIFIER DIODES

1.9.1 SELENIUM RECTIFIERS

Reverse resistance is a limiting factor in rectifiers, as is temperature. The

Page 16 Module 4 Master Issue 4 22/12/09