Neurons

Like all organ systems, the nervous system can do its specialized functions because the cells
that make up the nervous system are specialized. The cells in the nervous system are
specialized both in how they work individually and how they are connected to each other. The
nervous system contains two kinds of cells:

neurons are the cell type (primarily) responsible for communication and integration in
the nervous system.

glia, which protect the neurons, but also modify their action.

Neurons (nerve cells) have three parts that carry

out the functions of communication and
integration: dendrites, axons, and axon
terminals. They have a fourth part the cell body or
soma, which carries out the basic life processes of
neurons. The figure at the right shows a "typical"
neuron.

Neurons have a single axon is the output of the

neuron. Axons are long (up to several feet long),
but thin - - sort of like a wire. They are designed
both in shape and function to carry information
reliably and quickly over long distances
(communication). Axons usually branch to connect
to go to different neurons. Axon terminals at the
end of axons make the actual connection to other
neurons.

Axons carry information from the senses to the CNS (Central Nervous System, brain and spinal
cord), from one part of the CNS to another, or from the CNS to muscles and glands, which
generate the behaviors you do.

Neurons usually have several dendrites (from the Greek dendron, for tree branches) are the
input to a neuron. Dendrites are designed both in shape and function to combine information the
information they get (integration). Most neurons have several dendrites, each of which may
branch up to six times to collect signals from the axon terminals from other neurons that cover it.
They are covered with synapses (connections) from many other neurons and combine the
signals they get from these synapses.
Nervous system
Nervous system is the chief controlling and
coordinating system of the body. It controls and
regulates all activities of the body, whether voluntary
or involuntary, and adjusts the individual (organism) to
the given surroundings. This is based on the special
properties of sensitivity, conductivity and
responsiveness of the nervous system.
The protoplasmic extensions of the nerve cells form
the neural pathways called nerves. The nerves
resemble the electricity wires. Like the electric current
flowing through the wires, the impulses (sensory and
motor) are conducted through the nerves.
The sensory impulses are transmitted by the sensory
(afferent) nerves from the periphery (skin, mucous
membranes, muscles, tendons, joints, and special
sense organs) to the central nervous system (CNS).
The motor impulses are transmitted by the motor
(efferent) nerves from the central nervous system to the periphery (muscles and
glands).
Thus the CNS is kept continuously informed about the surroundings (environment)
through various sensory impulses, both general and special. The CNS in turn brings
about necessary adjustment of the body by issuing appropriate orders which arc passed
on as motor impulses to the muscles, vessels, viscera and glands. The adjustment of
the organism to the given surroundings is the most important function of the nervous
system, without which it will not be possible for the organism ta survive.

Parts of Nervous System:

The nervous system is broadly divided into central and peripheral parts which are
continuous with each other. Further subdivisions of each part are given below.

Central nervous system (CNS) includes:

 Central Nervous System
1. Brain or encephalon, which occupies cranial cavity, and contains the
higher governing centers.
2. Spinal cord or spinal medulla, which occupies upper two-thirds of the
vertebral canal, and contains many reflex centers.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes:

Peripheral Nervous System (In Blue)

1. Cerebrospinal nervous system is the somatic component of the
peripheral nervous system, which includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves and
 31pairs of spinal nerves. It innervates the somatic structures of the head and
neck, limbs and body wall, and mediates somatic sensory and motor
functions.
2. Peripheral autonomic nervous system is the visceral component of the
peripheral nervous system, which includes the visceral or splanchnic nerves
that are connected to the CNS through the somatic nerves. It innervates the
viscera, glands, blood vessels and non-striated muscles, and mediates the
visceral functions.

Gland

The Endocrine system (along with the nervous system) controls and regulates the
complex activities of the body. The Endocrine system regulates the activities of the body
by secreting complex chemical substances (hormones) into the blood stream. These
secretions come from a variety of glands which control various organs of the body. The
key functions are:

To regulate the metabolic functions of the body.

To regulate the rate of chemical reactions in various cells.

To influence the ability of substances to transport themselves through cell

membranes.
About Hormones
Hormones
are secreted from the glands of the endocrine system, they are specific in that
each hormone causes a response in a specific target organ or group of cells,
rather than on the body as a whole. Exocrine hormones are secreted via a duct
into the blood and usually effect a distant organ or tissue. Endocrine
hormones are secreted within the tissue (rather than via a duct) and enter the
blood stream via capillaries.

Hormones can be grouped into three main types:

1. amines, these are simple molecules

2. proteins and peptides which are made from chains of amino acids

3. steroids which are derived from cholesterol.

Glands
discharge hormones directly into the bloodstream. They have built in feedback
mechanisms that maintain a proper balance of hormones, and prevent excess
hormone secretion. Low concentrations of a hormone will often trigger the gland
to secrete. Once the concentrations of the hormone in the blood rise this may
cause the gland to stop secreting, until once again hormone concentrations fall.
This feedback mechanism (which is characteristic of most glands) causes a cycle
of hormone secretions.
Disposal of waste.
Once hormones have served their function on their target organs/tissues they are
destroyed. They are either destroyed by the liver or the actual tissues of the
target organs. They are then removed by the kidneys.

The Pituitary Gland

This is known as the "master gland" because it exerts control over all of the other
glands of the endocrine system. Despite its importance the pituitary gland is no larger
than a small pea. The Pituitary gland is made up of two separate glands: the Anterior
lobewhich is an outgrowth of the pharynx, and the Posterior lobe which is an
outgrowth of the brain composed of neural (nerve) tissue.

The Anterior Lobe of the pituitary plays the 'master' role secreting six major hormones
that affect most of the body, including the other Endocrine glands:

ACTH (Adrenocorticotrophic hormone) stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete

its hormones.

hGH (Human growth hormone) also known as somatotrophic hormone is

responsible for the growth of long bones, muscles and viscera.

TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone) influences the structure of the thyroid and
causes it to secrete thyroid hormone.

FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone) stimulates female egg production or male

sperm production.

PRL (Prolactin) in females causes the corpus luteum the area around the mature
follicle to produce two important hormones: Oestrogen and Progesterone. During
pregnancy PRL is also responsible for the development of the glandular tissues
of the breast which produce milk.

LH (Luteinzing hormone) works in conjunction with FSH in females to cause

ovulation and prepares the uterus for pregnancy, in males the testes to secrete
testosterone.