i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8

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An experimental study on combustion,

performance and emission analysis of a single
cylinder, 4-stroke DI-diesel engine using hydrogen
in dual fuel mode of operation

Madhujit Deb*, G.R.K. Sastry, P.K. Bose, Rahul Banerjee

Mechanical Engineering Department, NIT Agartala, Tripura 799046, India

article info abstract

Article history: The hydrogen-diesel dual fuel combustion was investigated in direct injection (DI) diesel
Received 23 March 2015 engine. The investigation presented in this paper preferred hydrogen as a long-term
Received in revised form renewable and least polluting fuel among various alternative fuels for internal combus-
20 April 2015 tion (IC) engines. In the current study a diesel engine is made to run using hydrogen in dual
Accepted 23 April 2015 fuel mode with diesel, where hydrogen is introduced into the intake manifold using an
Available online 23 May 2015 LPG-CNG injector and pilot diesel is injected using diesel injectors. The hydrogen energy
contents of the total fuel were varied from 0%, 11%, 17%, 30% and 42% (the 0% hydrogen
Keywords: energy content represents neat diesel fuel), were experienced at (1500 10) rpm of
Diesel engine invariable engine speed and 5.2 kW of consistent indicated power. The test results showed
Hydrogen the improvement in brake thermal efficiency (BTHE) of the engine, reduction in brake
BTHE specific energy consumption (BSEC) with an increasing hydrogen energy fraction.
BSEC Furthermore, indicated specific CO, CO2 and smoke emissions decrease with an increasing
Smoke percentage of hydrogen energy content. Conversely, indicated specific NOx emissions in-
NOx creases with increase in hydrogen content. In addition to that, it was also observed that
there was a sharp increase in peak in-cylinder pressure and the peak heat release rate
values with the increasing hydrogen rate.
Copyright 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.

fuel and reduces the combustion duration due to high speed of

Introduction
To facilitate the enhancement in the performance of diesel
engines the addition of hydrogen to conventional diesel fuel in
the compression ignition (CI) engine have been proposed by
many researchers because it raises the H/C ratio of the entire
flame propagation of hydrogen in relation to other fuels
[1e11]. Besides, injecting a small amount of hydrogen to a
diesel engine decreases the heterogeneity of diesel fuel spray
due to high diffusivity of hydrogen which crafts the combus-
tible mixture better premixed with air and results in more
homogeneous mixture [16]. The major drawbacks with

* Corresponding author. Mechanical Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Agartala, Barjala, Jirania, Tripura 799046,
India. Tel.: 91 9436582714; fax: 91 381 2346630.
E-mail address: madhujit_deb@rediffmail.com (M. Deb).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.04.125
0360-3199/Copyright 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8
hydrogen as a fuel are combustion knock, high in-cylinder
peak pressures and temperatures, results in higher amounts
of (NOx) emissions and high self-ignition temperature
[4,8e11]. A number of investigations have been reported on
pure hydrogen combustion in (CI) engines and also on the
combustion of hydrogen-diesel dual fuel strategies. Sar-
avanan et al. [3] worked with hydrogen enrichment to the
diesel fuel. Hydrogen was altered in the range from 10% to 90%
by volume. Initially the engine was started with diesel fuel;
later the diesel flow rate was reduced and hydrogen was
supplied to the intake manifold. Diesel flow was reduced up to
10% of the baseline value and hydrogen flow was increased
until the engine attained the rated speed of 1500 rpm. They
concentrated on emission and performance characteristics of
the engine at various hydrogen doses and concluded that
knock can occur if only the hydrogen enrichment equals 50%
or more at full load of the engine. Furthermore they found
reduction in hydro carbons (HC) and (NOx) emissions. Based
on their study they concluded that the optimal hydrogen
enrichment with diesel was 30%. Senthil et al. [12] studied the
application of hydrogen to improve combustion of vegetable
oil in a diesel engine. In their study, experiments were carried
out to evaluate the engine performance while using small
quantities of hydrogen in a compression ignition engine pri-
marily fueled with a vegetable oil, specifically Jatropha oil. An
increase in the brake thermal efficiency was observed from
27.3% to a maximum of 29.3% at 7% of hydrogen mass share at
the maximum power output. They also observed the consid-
erable reduction in smoke by 20% with a reduction in (HC) and
(CO) emissions from 130 to 100 ppm and 0.26%e0.17% (by
volume), respectively. The optimal hydrogen mass share was
found to be 7%. By means of hydrogen induction, the (NO)
level was increased from 735 to 875 ppm at full output due to
its elevated combustion rate. It was also observed that ignition
delay, peak in-cylinder pressure and the maximum rate of
pressure rise were amplified in the dual fuel mode of opera-
tion with hydrogen. Reduction in combustion duration was
observed due to higher flame speed of hydrogen. Additionally,
a higher premixed combustion rate was observed with
hydrogen induction. Antunes et al. [13] in their study
employed hydrogen directly in a single-cylinder, air-cooled,
normally aspirated, direct injection diesel engine by heating
the intake air to 80  C with a specifically designed high pres-
sured H2 injector. Consequently, an increase in 14% of power
with an increase in thermal efficiency from 28% to 43% was
observed. Besides, a decrease of 20% on NOx emission for-
mation was also obtained. It is possible to use hydrogen in a
dual fuel mode in a CI engine. In this mode, ignition can be
apprehended by diesel pulverization because hydrogen is the
main fuel, and it is recognized as the most sensible method
when combustion permanence is considered. Thus, timing
manifold/port injection, direct hydrogen injection and
continuous manifold injection methods are applied [14]. In
case of continuous manifold injection method, as a result of
abnormal combustion, such as knock, pre-ignition and back-
fire, the engine operational area is restricted. During time
manifold/port injection and continuous manifold direct in-
jection methods, a part of intake air is replaced by hydrogen
due to drop of volumetric efficiency, a decrease in engine
power is observed [14]. These difficulties can be managed by
8587
direct hydrogen injection. On the other hand to implement
direct hydrogen injection method a modification of the diesel
engine and the involvement of a high pressure H2 injector on
the cylinder head is essential. Hydrogen has a wider flam-
mability limit, higher flame speed and faster combustion ve-
locity [15e17] in comparison to diesel fuel. Furthermore,
hydrogen has a short quenching distance, elevated thermal
value and high diffusivity [11]. Thus, the use of hydrogen in
diesel engines in dual fuel mode by diesel pulverization is
beneficial because PM emissions are reduced [18]. Since
hydrogen does not contain carbon, CO2, HC and CO emissions
are also reduced. Bose and Maji [19] performed their experi-
mental investigations on a 4-stroke, water-cooled, single cyl-
inder diesel engine and where a quantity of 0.15 kg/h of
hydrogen was introduced from the intake manifold via a so-
lenoid valve. The testing were performed at 20%, 40%, 60% and
80% full load condition along with 10% and 20% EGR (exhaust
gas recirculation) conditions. The results obtained were then
compared to the pure diesel and the diesel-hydrogen dual fuel
modes. An enhancement in the thermal efficiency with a
reduction of CO, CO2, THC and soot emissions were observed
with the use of hydrogen. The NOx emissions were restricted
with EGR treatment. Liew et al. [19] studied the upshot of
hydrogen on the combustion process with varying the engine
load and hydrogen quantity in a 4-stroke, 6-cylinder, heavy-
duty diesel engines. It was observed that at 70% load with a
increased hydrogen quantity, the combustion duration
reduced and the peak heat release rate amplified. Kose and
Ciniviz [14] studied the effects on engine performance and
exhaust emissions at 2.5%, 5% and 7.5% hydrogen volumes as
a accompanying fuel at full load for several engine cycles in a
4-stroke, water-cooled, 4 cylinder, direct injection diesel en-
gine. It was observed that with hydrogen addition the NOx
emissions and the exhaust temperature increase moreover
the HC, CO and O2 emissions were decreased. A four-cylinder,
direct injection, naturally aspirated diesel engine was used for
investigation by Morais et al. [21] where the engine load was
varied between 0 kW and 40 kW with 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% of
hydrogen energy share. The results showed the decrease in
CO2 emissions up to 12% with increasing hydrogen flow rate
as compared with neat diesel fuel in conjunction with insig-
nificant decrease in bsfc and effective engine efficiency.
Christodoulou and Megaritis [21] performed their experi-
mentation on a Ford Puma, 4-cylinder diesel engine where
hydrogen or nitrogen with 2% up to 8% of total intake charge
on volume basis was inducted into engine. They concluded
that with hydrogen addition NOx emissions were increased
while smoke and CO emissions were decreased compared
with neat diesel fuel. On the other end NOx emissions were
decreased while smoke, CO and bsfc values were increased,
with nitrogen addition compared with neat diesel fuel. Sar-
avanan et al. [22] performed their experimental investigation
with introducing a constant supply of hydrogen of 10 slpm at
230BTDC (before top dead centre) injection advance for diesel
to a single-cylinder, water-cooled, vertical, naturally aspi-
rated, stationary, DI (direct injection), diesel engine. Three
different hydrogen injection times were chosen (300CA, 600CA
and 900CA) with 5 different hydrogen injection advances
(50BTDC, TDC, 50ATDC,100ATDC, and 150ATDC) for investi-
gation. It was observed that for a H2 injection at50ATDC (after
8588 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8

ignited with diesel injected in the conventional manner at a

Table 1 e Properties of hydrogen in comparison with
constant engine speed and at full load condition to determine
diesel.
the effect of Hydrogen on engine performance and emissions.
Sl. no. Properties Diesel Hydrogen
1. Formula CnH1.8nC8eC20 H2
2. Auto ignition temperature (K) 530 858 Experimental setup
3. Minimum ignition energy (MJ) e 0.02
4. Flammability limits 0.7e5 4e75
(volume% in air)
The present study was performed on an existing single cyl-
5. Stoichiometric air fuel ratio on 14.5 34.3 inder four stroke CI engine with specifications as shown in
mass basis Table 2 in conformity to the Indian Standards IS:11170-1985.
6. Molecular weight (g/mol) 170 2.016 The engine was synchronized to an eddy current dynamom-
7. Limits of flammability e 0.1e7.1 eter for measuring the load and incorporated with speed
(equivalence ratio)
sensing entity designed to run at a constant speed of
8. Density at 16  C and 1.01 bar 833e881 0.0838
1500 10 rpm. The instrumentation was interfaced to a
(kg/m3)
9. Net heating value (lower) MJ/kg 42.5 119.93 computer through a NI Labview based centralized DAQ
10. Flame velocity (cm/s) 30 265e325 platform synchronized with a crank angle encoder onto a GUI
11. Quenching gap in NTP air (cm) e 0.064 based Engine Soft post processing software. The DAQ was
12. Diffusivity in air (cm2/s) e 0.63 programmed to acquire in-cylinder and fuel injection pres-
13. Octane number 30 130 sure data at 1 crank intervals and present the data smooth-
14. Cetane number 40e55 e
ened over 100 consecutive cycles to compensate for cyclic
15. Boiling point (K) 436e672 20e27
variations at a particular case of engine operation. The
16. Viscosity at 15.5  C, (centipoise) 2.6e4.1 e
17. Specific gravity 0.83 0.091 exhaust gas temperature, cooling water inlet and outlet tem-
peratures were also reported as an average value over the
period of data acquisition while common performance pa-
top dead centre) and at 900CA H2, the injection duration rameters were reported as calculated values for the same
showed the best performance and emission results. Only NOx period of sampling. The speed scanning time of the dyna-
emissions were increased with use of hydrogen in internal mometer was set to 2000 ms to smoothen unwanted signal
combustion engines [20]. The high NOx emission is the fluctuations. The specific fuel consumption of diesel fuel was
consequence of the elevated combustion temperature devel- carried out in fuel burette of all tests were fuel consumption
oped inside the combustion chamber of the engine using for a time interval of 60 s was recorded in a fuel burette of
hydrogen addition. EGR strategy can be implemented to 12.4 mm diameter. Mass flow rate of inducted air, was recor-
reduce NOx formation and prevent knocking, but it has a ded as a calculated value (kg/h) from the sensed manometric
negative impact on increase in soot emissions in diesel en- depression in the integrated air box. Extra care was taken in
gines. Thus the efficacy of synergetic hydrogen-diesel dual keeping the speed constant (10 rpm) during data acquisition
fuel combustion [Table 1] has been studied to great length in at each case of engine load stepping by adjusting the screw
recent times where it has been established as a viable alter- given with the fuel pump rack. All procedure pertaining to
native to reduce the emission footprint without compromise experimental testing preparation, performance test and
of the related performance indices of conventional diesel recording of test results conformed to the Indian Standards
operation. Considering the advancement made in alternative specifications (IS 10000(Part 5):1980, IS 10000(Part 8):1980, IS
energy studies with the strain of emission legislations, in the 10000(Part 6):1980) [23,24]. The average ambient temperature,
present experimental investigation where hydrogen was cooling water temperature and relative humidity during
injected into the intake manifold via hydrogen injector and experimentation was recorded at 25  C, 18  C, and 55%,
respectively. In this study, the test engine was operated in
diesel mode, and the compression ratio was set to 17.5:1 A
Table 2 e Engine specification. schematic view of the test bench is shown in Fig. 1 [38].

Make and type KirloskarTV1-Single cylinder, Four

H2 fuel system
stroke, Water cooled.
Bore and stroke 87.5 mm  110 mm
Type of ignition Compression ignition If an existing engine were to be fueled by hydrogen, problems,
Compression ratio 17.5:1 such as backfire, pre-ignition, high rate of pressure rise and
Peak pressure 76 bar even knock can occur [10]. So, considering the temperamental
Cubic capacity 661cucm nature of hydrogen fuel, sufficient care was taken to incor-
Maximum power 5.2 kW (@1500 rpm)
porate redundant safety measures in the hydrogen induction
Fuel injection pressure 205 bar
circuit. To this effect, a special in-house developed intake
Dynamometer Eddy current type (Make: SAJ test
plant pvt. Ltd) manifold extension was designed with inbuilt flame arrestor
Crank angle sensor Model 8.3700.1321.0360, Make consisting of circular plates with perforations of 0.064 cm
KUBLER diameter corresponding to the approximate minimum
Pressure transducer Piezoelectric type (Make: KISTLER), quenching distance of hydrogen. A remotely operated emer-
Model-6056A31U20test plant pvt. gency shut off v/v with temperature relay from the inlet
Ltd)
manifold, a flame trap, surge tank and interconnecting flame
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8
Fig. 1 e Schematic diagram of complete experimental circuit.
arrestors as depicted in the schematic Fig. 2 constituted the
safety measures in the circuit. The hydrogen (BOC India Ltd:
UN 1049 as per CAS: 1333-74-0; Purity 99.5% v/v) compressed
at around 205 bar, was routed to the solenoid injector via a two
stage pressure reduction system comprising of the high
pressure reducing stage provided by the pressure regulator/
reducer of CONCOA make, capable of 280/14 bar reduction and
a low pressure reducing stage located after the surge tank to
reduce the pressure manually to the required working pres-
sure of 1.2 bar at the solenoid injector of DYMCO make (Table
3). The injector was mounted onto the inlet manifold at a
distance of 15 Di from the inlet port [25,28]. The distance was
chosen on the basis of a minimum window allowance to the
inducted hydrogen to form a homogenous mixture with the
incoming charge and also to ensure at the same time that
undesirable pre-ignition induced flash back was dissuaded
considering the easily ignitable tendencies of a hydrogen-air
mixture. The injector was controlled by means of an elec-
tronic control unit (ECU). An Infrared sensor was used to sense
the crank angle position. The start of the injection and the
duration of the injector opening were controlled by using the
ECU. The TMI system was programmed to ensure that
hydrogen was inducted only after the scavenge period (IVO-
EVC) of 10 as depicted in Fig. 4 to minimize any loss of the
inducted fresh hydrogen charge to the exhaust which further
minimized any unwanted pre-ignition of the inducted
hydrogen on contact with the hot exhaust gas Moreover, the
designed time ensured that hydrogen was injected only after a
8589
sufficient flow of cooler ambient air was inducted in the cyl-
inder during the opening of the inlet valve, this being critical
in quenching any residual hot spots remaining in the cylinder
thereby removing any possibility of flash back [9] (see Fig. 3).
Emission analysis instruments
An AVL Digas 444 5-gas analyzer was used to analyze the
gaseous emissions of CO, THC, CO2 and NOx emissions and an
AVL 415S Smoke Meter was used to measure the smoke
emissions. AVL 437opacimeter are used to analyze the
exhaust of the engine. The 5-gas analyzer is used to measure
the emissions of CO, CO2, and O2 in terms of volume per-
centage. Although the AVL Digas 444 5-gas emission analyzer
supplies data as volume % for the CO and CO2 values and as
ppm for the THC and NOx values and the AVL 415S supplies
data as FSN or mg/m3 for the smoke emissions, all of the
emission values are converted to g/kW-hr.
Experimental procedure
As cited earlier, all of the experiments were performed in a
single-cylinder, 4-stroke, diesel engine which was first tested
with pure Diesel, which provides a baseline data set for
comparing different DieseleHydrogen combinations in dual
fuel mode. Diesel fuel was pulverized in the cylinder at
230BTDC constant diesel injection advance. H2 was injected
8590 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8

Fig. 2 e Hydrogen induction circuit.

into the intake port using a DYMCO make solenoid injector. In of the possibility of a backfire by allowing hot spots contents
the present experimental investigation hydrogen was injected to cool within a crank window of 4.5 ATDC beyond the
into the intake manifold via a TMI approach wherein baseline exhaust v/v closing timing as depicted in Fig. 4. This creates a
diesel acted as the pilot fuel for the subsequent dual fuel (4.50 4.50) 90 of valve overlap. So the induction period re-
combustion. The TMI approach possesses the capability to mains (1800 35.50 4.50) - 90 2210. In order inject the H2
commence fuel delivery at a timing position sometimes after right at the start of combustion, it was injected 10 after TDC,
the beginning of intake stroke to ensure a pre-cooling effect which reduces the effective induction period to
and thus make the pre-ignition sources ineffective. Further-
more, it helps to quench and dilute any residual combustion
products that could be present in the compression space close
to TDC [9,26]. The 10 crank angle window being provided to
allow hydrogen induction to commence after the scavenge
period of the experimental engine together with the reduction

Table 3 e Specification of solenoid injector.

Properties Specifications
Make/Model DYMCO Corp/GISM-i1000
Certification E11110R-000064/E867R-010044
Operating Temperature Range 40 Ce120  C
Approval Pressure 1.2 bar 0.05 bar (@ DC 0 V)
Operating Working Pressure 0.2 bare4.2 bar
Maximum Working Pressure 4.5 bar
Operating Voltage Range DC 6 Ve18 V
Max Peak Current 2.0 A (@DC12 V)
Max Hold Current 0.8 A (@ DC 12 V)
Inductance (mH) 4.7 mH 5% (@120 Hz)
Output-quantity (cc/stroke, @1.2 bar) 100 cc
Operating flow rate (L/min), (1.2 bar) 66
Opening-time (ms) 3.0
Closing-time (ms) 1.0
Fig. 3 e Cross sectional view of hydrogen injector.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8 8591

(2210  100) 2110. Four different hydrogen levels (0%, 11%,

17%, 30% and 42% H2) were studied. The arithmetic mean was
calculated based on at least 100 experiments. Before starting
this experiment, the engine was heated to a constant engine
regime temperature. The cooling water intake and output
temperatures were measured using K-type thermocouples.
The test was first implemented with no hydrogen content,
that is, with only diesel fuel, at 1500 rpm, which was the full
load. After achieving the stable operation of the engine,
hydrogen was sent into the engine at (1500 10) rpm, which
was the full load. First, this procedure was applied to the case
of 11% of the total fuel energy being composed of hydrogen.
This procedure was then applied for the other H2 contents
(17%, 30% and 42% H2). In all of the experiments, the engine
was at full load and at the same indicated power. Detailed
information regarding the test conditions are presented in
Table 4. Backfire, engine knock, or pre-ignition were not
encountered in the experiments. The total uncertainties of the
measurements were calculated of the test engine according to
the Kline and McClintock method [27]. The accuracies of the
measurements and the uncertainties are presented in Tables
5e8.

Fig. 4 e Valve timing diagram for the experimental engine.

Results and discussion

Experiments were carried out with hydrogen and diesel in

dual fuel operation and the engine was operated with pure
Table 4 e Test conditions. diesel at a constant speed of (1500 10) rpm constant engine
Indicated Engine Start of diesel H2 energy Diesel energy velocity and 5.2 kW constant indicated power. Then the en-
power speed injection share (%) share (%) gine is switched to dual-fuel mode of operation with hydrogen
5.2 kW 1500 rpm 230BTDC 0 100 as the main fuel and diesel as the pilot fuel under the same
5.2 kW 1500 rpm 230BTDC 11 89 operating conditions and accordingly studied the effects of
5.2 kW 1500 rpm 230BTDC 17 83 0%, 11%, 17%, 30% and 42% hydrogen energy contents in the
5.2 kW 1500 rpm 230BTDC 30 70
total fuel on the engine performance and emissions charac-
5.2 kW 1500 rpm 230BTDC 42 58
teristics. Moreover, the effect on the cylindrical pressure value
and the heat release rate is also evaluated. During the exper-
imentation, the hydrogen energy content of the total fuel did

Table 5 e Accuracy of emission measuring instrument (AVL DIGAS 444).

Measured Measuring range Resolution Accuracy % Uncertaintya in sampling
Parameter
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 0 10% vol. 0.01% vol. <0.6% vol.: 0.03% vol. 0.2
0.6% vol.: 5% of value 0.3
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0 20% vol. 0.1% vol. <10% vol.: 0.5% vol. 0.15
10% vol.: 5% of value 0.2
Total 0 20,000 ppm vol. 2000:1 ppm vol. <200 ppm vol.: 10 ppm 0.1
Un-burnt HydroCarbons (n-hexane equivalent) >2000:10 ppm vol. 200 ppm vol.: 5% of value 0.2
(TUHC)
Oxygen 0 22% vol. 0.01% vol. <2% vol.: 0.1% vol. 0.2
(O2) 2% vol: 5% of value. 0.3
Nitric oxide 0 5000 ppm vol. 1 ppm vol. <500 ppm vol.: 50 ppm vol. 0.2
(NO) 500 ppm vol.: 10% of value. 0.9
Lambda 0 9.999 0.001
Warm up time z7 min
Response time 15 s
Relative humidity 95% non-condensing
PC interfaces RS232C
a
Conforms to the reported values in the works of [24e27] utilizing the same 5 gas analysis instrumentation.
8592 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8

Table 6 e Engine instrumentation.

Experimental engine instrumentation %Uncertainty of
sampling
Dynamometer (Integrated speed EddyCurrentType-ModelAG10 of Saj Test Plant Pvt. Ltd. 1.0
measurement)
Dynamometer Loading unit Make Apex, ModelAX-155.
Load sensor Make Sensotronics Sanmar Ltd., Model60001 0.2
Load indicator Make Selectron, modelPIC152eB2 0.1
Fuel measuring unit Make Apex-Model:FF0.012 1.5
Fuel flow transmitter Differential pressure transmitter; Make Yokogawa-Model EJA110-EMS- 0.065
5A-92NN
Cylinder pressure sensor Piezo sensor of Make-PCB Piezotronics Inc, Model HSM111A22 0.1
Fuel injector pressure sensor Piezo sensor; Make: PCB Piezotronics Inc, Model-M108A02 0.15
Crank angle sensor Make Kubler-Germany Model 8.3700.1321.0360 0.2
Data acquisition device NIUSB-6210BusPoweredMSeries
Temperature sensor Make Radix; TypeRTD,PT100 and ThermocoupleType K 0.4%
Temperature transmitter Make Wika, modelT19.10.3K0-4NK-Z, 0.2%
Airflow transmitter Make-Wika; Model-SL1 0.5%

not surpass 42% to avoid knocking since the knocking problem hydrogen energy fraction, 30.14% at a 17% hydrogen energy
was observed during experimental studies with higher fraction, 32.31% at a 30% hydrogen energy fraction and 33.28%
hydrogen ratio values. at a 42% hydrogen energy fraction. The brake thermal effi-
ciency increased by 3.94% with the addition of 11% hydrogen,
4.89% with the addition of 17% hydrogen, 12.44% with the
Brake thermal efficiency (BTHE) addition of 30% hydrogen and 15.80% with the addition of 42%
hydrogen. In the experiment it was observed that with the
The variation of the brake thermal efficiency with several increase hydrogen energy contents in the total fuel there was
hydrogen energy contents is shown in Fig. 5. The BTHE as decrease in flow rate of diesel. It indicates that hydrogen is
defined in Eq. (4.1) can be calculated as the rate of energy taking part in the combustion. The increase in brake thermal
required to produce a unit kilowatt power. efficiency for hydrogen operation is due to enhancement of
BP hydrogen in air. Increase in thermal efficiency is credited to
BTHE% (4.1) improved combustion because of superior combustion rate
_ H2 LHVH2 m
m _ D LHVD
due to high flame velocity of hydrogen.
where BP, is the brake power (kW), D is the mass flow rate of
diesel (kg/hr) and m_ H2 is the mass flow rate of hydrogen (kg/
Brake specific energy consumption (BSEC)
hr). LHVH2 is the lower heating value (MJ/kg) of hydrogen
multiplied by the mass flow rate of hydrogen and LHVD is the
Fig. 6 shows the variation of BSEC (brake specific fuel con-
lower heating value of diesel multiplied by the mass flow rate
sumption) with 0%, 11%, 17%, 30% and 42% hydrogen energy
of diesel. (LHVH2 LHVD) is always constant at each load.
contents of total fuel. After calculating the energy value of the
The brake thermal efficiency is measured as 28.74% at a 0%
consumed hydrogen as diesel fuel, the total energy value of
hydrogen energy fraction (neat diesel), 29.87% at a 11%
the consumed fuel was estimated as diesel fuel, as shown in
Fig. 6. BSEC thus gives an indication to the efficiency with
which the input energy content of the fuels is utilized during
Table 7 e Specification of AVL (415 S) smoke meter.
combustion. A decrease in the BSEC value is observed with the
Measurement principle Measurement of filter paper increase of the hydrogen content. Using 11%, 17%, 30% and
blackening 42% hydrogen energy fractions, the BSEC decreased by 3.79%
Measurement value output FSN (Filter smoke number) or mg/
at a 11% hydrogen energy fraction, 4.66% at a 17% hydrogen
m3 (soot concentration)
Measurement range 0 to 10 FSN
energy fraction, 11.07% at a 30% hydrogen energy fraction and
Detection limit 0.002 FSN or ~0.02 mg/m3 18.60% at a 42% hydrogen energy fraction, respectively, from
Resolution 0.001 FSN or 0.01 mg/m3 the baseline diesel., In the present study, it has been observed
Interfaces 2 serial RS 232 interfaces with AK that there was a persistent trend of reduction of BSEC with
protocol increase in load for a given hydrogen enrichment strategy.
Sample flow ~10 l/min
This is an indicative of the enhanced combustion of conven-
Ambient conditions 5e55  C/max., 95RH; without
tional diesel combustion on account of high flame velocities
condensation
Sea level 500 to 5000 m and high calorific content of the participating hydrogen with
Repeatability Standard deviation 1 s (0.005 air resulting in complete combustion of fuel and a little more
FSN 3% of the measured value @ engine power due to the increase in the amount of hydrogen
10 s intake time) fuel. This trend was maintained in all cases of observations
Reproducibility s  (0.005 FSN 6% measured which is a clear indicative of better mixing of hydrogen with
value)
air resulting in more efficient burning process of fuel mixture.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8 8593

Table 8 e Total percentage of uncertainty of computed performance parameters.

Computed performance Measured Instrument involved in %Uncertainty of Calculation Total% uncertainty
parameter variables measurement measuring of computed parameters
instruments [22]
q
0:22 0:12 12
2
BP (brake power) Load, Load sensor, 0.2, 0.1, 1.0 1.02
RPM Load indicator,
Speed measuring Unit. q
0:0652 1:52 1:022
2
BSEC (Brake specific SFC (Diesel), Fuel measuring unit, 0.065, 1.5, 1.02 1.81
Energy consumption) BP Fuel flow transmitter,
As for BP measurement q
1:812 1:022 0:152
2
BTE (Brake thermal SFC (Diesel), As for SFC measurement, 1.81, 1.02, 0.15 2.08
efficiency) BP, As for BP measurement,
H2 flow H2 mass flow meter,

Carbon dioxide
The disparity of indicated specific CO2 emissions with
different energy contents of H2 is revealed in Fig. 7. With
hydrogen enhancement, a significant diminution is observed
in the CO2 emissions. With a 11%, 17%, 30% and 42% hydrogen
addition, the indicated specific CO2 emissions reduces to
510.34 g/kW-hr, 443.56 g/kW-hr, 323.89 g/kW-hr and 247.53 g/
kW-hr, respectively, from 623.25 g/kW-hr (neat diesel fuel).
Hydrogen is devoid of any carbonaceous compound, so when
it is used to surrogate diesel fuel, the mixture fuel produces a
smaller amount carbon dioxide [30]. The accumulation of
hydrogen to diesel fuel increases the H/C ratio of the intact
fuel, and it decreases the combustion duration; in addition,
hydrogen has a high flame speed propagation [2,4,9,10].
Hydrogen addition to diesel fuel could decrease the hetero-
geneity of diesel fuel spray since the high diffusivity of
hydrogen results in a superior premixed and more uniform
combustible mixture [1]. Enhancement in the premixing of the
combustible mixture will facilitate higher efficiency for com-
plete combustion [31]. The enhancement in the combustion
efficiency of fuel due to the higher flame speed propagation of
hydrogen, the higher H/C ratio of the blended fuel and the
superior premixed combustion enables the diminution of CO2
emissions. Many researchers found related results in the
literature [14,19,29,30].
Carbon monoxide
Fig. 8 depicts the variation of indicated carbon monoxide
emissions with different energy contents of H2. Under a con-
dition of pure diesel (0% H2), the indicated specific CO emis-
sion quantity is measured as 1.76 g/kW-hr; at all other rates of
hydrogen addition, the CO emission quantity is measured as
0.78 g/kW-hr, 0.73 g/kW-hr, 0.59 g/kW-hr and 0.52 g/kW-hr
respectively. Hence, the addition of hydrogen can condense
CO emissions to a smaller value than the exactitude of the
measurement device. Additionally, the high flame propaga-
tion speed of hydrogen facilitates to increase the cylindrical
pressure, and increase the combustion efficiency. Besides, the
higher diffusivity of hydrogen in comparison to other fuels
provides better homogeneity of the combustible mixture,

35 15,000

30 12,500

25
BSEC (kJ/kW-hr)

10,000
BTE (%)

20
7,500
15

5,000
10

2,500
5

0 0
0 11 17 30 42 0 11 17 30 42
Hydrogen energy share (%) Hydrogen energy share (%)
Fig. 5 e Brake thermal efficiency (BTHE) v/s hydrogen Fig. 6 e Brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) v/s
energy share (%). hydrogen energy share (%).
8594 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8

800 0.06

0.05
600

0.04
CO2(g/kW-hr)

UHC (g/kW-hr)
400
0.03

0.02
200

0.01

0
0 11 17 30 42 0
Hydrogen energy share (%) 0 11 17 30 42
Fig. 7 e Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission v/s hydrogen energy Hydrogen energy share (%)
share (%).
Fig. 9 e Un-burnt hydrocarbon (UHC) emission v/s with
hydrogen energy share (%).
enabling more oxygen to be available to boost the combustion
[31]. Consequently, low CO emission from pilot diesel fuel and
of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) in the exhaust gases is usually
lube oil transpires in the case of hydrogen addition [19]. The
denoted as un-burnt hydrocarbon (UHC) [32]. The deviation of
outcomes of this study are steady with the results of Bari and
the indicated specific un-burnt hydrocarbon emissions for
Esmail [30], Bose and Maji [19] and Zhou et al. [29].
different H2 energy contents is represented in Fig. 9. With 11%,
17%, 30% and 42% hydrogen additions, the indicated specific
Total hydrocarbon
UHC emissions increased to 0.053 g/kW-hr, 0.044 g/kW-hr,
0.038 g/kW-hr and 0.035 g/kW-hr respectively, from 0.039 g/
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are formed due to
kW-hr (0% H2). With the accumulation of hydrogen, an in-
the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuel. The intensity
crease of the hydrocarbon values is experimented. Moreover,
all of the measured UHC emissions, including neat diesel and
1.8 hydrogen-diesel fuels, are present in a smaller value than
regulations norms based on the engine characteristics. Zhou
et al. [29] investigated the impact of hydrogen addition on
1.5 engine performance and emissions. The hydrogen energy
content was altered 0e42% of the total fuel. As per their re-
sults, low levels of hydrogen accumulation (11% and 17%)
CO (g/kW-hr)

1.2 increased hydrocarbon emissions and high levels of hydrogen

accumulation (30% and 42%) reduced hydrocarbon emissions
under full load condition.
0.9
Smoke
0.6
Fig. 10 shows the variation of the indicated specific smoke
level with an increasing H2 energy content. The smoke emis-
0.3 sion reduces surprisingly with hydrogen addition. The indi-
cated specific smoke emission quantity is observed as 1.347 g/
kW-hr with no hydrogen, while in case of different H2 energy
0 contents as 0.850 g/kW-hr, 0.794 g/kW-hr,0.652 g/kW-hr and
0 11 17 30 42 0.456 g/kW-hr with 11% H2, 17% H2, 30% H2 and 42% H2 energy
Hydrogen energy share(%) content, respectively. It is instituted that the indicated specific
smoke emission values with 11%, 30% and 42% hydrogen en-
Fig. 8 e Carbon mono-oxide (CO) emission v/s hydrogen ergy content specific fuel consumption of diesel reduces by
energy share (%). 23.49%, 36.23%, 63.08% and 89.82%, respectively, in contrast
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8 8595

15

12.5

NOx(g/kW-hr)
10

7.5

2.5

0
0 11 17 30 42
Hydrogen energy share (%)
Fig. 11 e NOx emission v/s hydrogen energy share (%).
Fig. 10 e Smoke emission v/s hydrogen energy share (%).

obtained comparable results from their experimental

with the value for neat diesel fuel. Hydrogen combustion investigations.
turns out into water only and it does not form any particulate
matter (soot) [19]. The diminution of particulate matter is
Pressure crank angle diagram
caused by the non appearance of carbon in the hydrogen fuel
[22]. The high diffusivity of hydrogen than that of other fuels,
Fig. 12 represents the calculated pressure data for several H2
increases the homogeneity of the combustible mixture and
energy values. The peak cylindrical pressure values for 0% H2,
increases the availability of oxygen, thereby providing a
11% H2, 17% H2, 30% H2 and 42% H2 are 58.53 bar, 58.92 bar,
improved condition for complete combustion [1,31]. The re-
55.72 bar, 53.36 bar and 60.25 bar, respectively. The peak cy-
sults of this study are similar to the results of Zhou et al. [30]
lindrical pressure boost up by 0.67% and 2.94% at a 11% and
and Bose and Maji [19].
42% H2 content and reduced by 4.8% and 8.83% for 11% and

Oxides of nitrogen 75
0% HES
The variation of indicated specific NOx emissions with the 11% HES
increasing H2 energy content at full load is shown in Fig. 11. 60 17% HES
In-cylinder pressure (bar)

With pure diesel (0% H2 content), the smallest indicated spe- 30% HES
cific NOx emission value is obtained; with 11% H2 and 17% H2 42% HES
energy content, a significant increase in NOx formation is
45
observed. In contrast to a 0% H2 content, at 30% H2 and 42% H2
energy contents, the increase in NOx formation is measured
as 226.14% and 305.75%, respectively. Formation of NOx is
associated with the in-cylindrical temperature rise, oxygen 30
concentration and reaction duration [14]. Hydrogen has
higher flame speed propagation than that of diesel [26,33e37]
which will enhance the probability of complete combustion in 15
dual fuel mode. Complete combustion leads to higher in-
cylinder peak pressure and which in turn increases the in-
cylinder temperature [30]. Hydrogen has lower heating value 0
(LHV) compared to diesel fuel which is the further reason for 300 330 360 390 420 450
high NOx emission, which results in an enhancement in the Crank Angle (Deg)
peak in-cylinder temperature [22]. NOx emissions increase
with hydrogen enrichment, especially with a 42% H2 content. Fig. 12 e In-cylinder pressure v/s crank angle in contrast
Zhou et al. [29], Bari and Esmail [30], and Bose and Maji [19] with hydrogen energy share (%).
8596 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8
17% H2 energy content respectively compared to the no
hydrogen state. The rise in peak cylindrical pressure directly
with the added hydrogen quantity as hydrogen increases the
in-cylinder pressure after the combustion is initiated [18].
Owing to elevated laminar flame speed of hydrogen, the peak
pressure and the rate of pressure rise reaches a higher value
with instantaneous combustion of hydrogen [22]. The out-
comes of this study are analogous to the results of Saravanan
et al. [22].
Heat release rate
The rate of heat release for 0%, 11%, 17%, 30% and 42% H2
energy contents is shown in Fig. 13. In case of pure diesel (0%
H2 content), 3 phased combustion can be observed as the
premixed combustion phase, the mixing controlled combus-
tion phase and late combustion phase. If the quantity of
hydrogen increases due to the high flame speed of hydrogen,
then in contrary of the mixing-controlled combustion phase,
i.e., a premixed combustion phase in explosive type, is
observed [14]. The premixed combustion of hydrogen has the
difficulty of causing detonation; however, in this experimental
study, the hydrogen energy content of total fuel does not
surpass 42% to restrict knocking tendency within the frontier.
The peak heat release rate is 78.07 J/0CA for the no hydrogen
case, but it is listed as 75.70 J/0CA, 69.95 J/0CA, 60.68 J/0CA and
88.04 J/0CA for 11%, 17%, 30% and 42% H2 energy contents,
respectively. The highest peak heat release rate was observed
to be amplified by 12.77% at a 42% H2 content compared to the
no hydrogen state, and it decreases in all other H2 energy
contents due to inability to burn the hydrogen with the stip-
ulated period of time. The addition of hydrogen was shown to
speed up the initiation of the premixed combustion.
Compared to diffusion combustion, hydrogen was found to
have a more momentous effect on the premixed combustion.
With the hydrogen accumulation in fuel enhances the heat
100
0% HES
11% HES
Rate of heat release (J/deg)
75 17% HES
30% HES
42% HES
50
25
0 hr,0.652 g/kW-hr and 0.456 g/kW-hr, respectively.
-25
300 330 360 390
Crank Angle (Deg)
Fig. 13 e Rate of heat release v/s crank angle in contrast
with hydrogen energy share (%).
release rate. The results of this study are consistent with the
results of Saravanan et al. [22].
Conclusions
In this experimental study, the performance characteristics of
a single-cylinder diesel engine are observed with its com-
bustion characteristics at a (1500 10) rpm engine speed,
5.2 kW constant indicated power and different hydrogen en-
ergy fractions of 0%, 11%, 17%, 30% and 46%.The test outcome
are acknowledged below;
 The brake thermal efficiency increased by 3.94% with the
addition of 11% hydrogen, 4.89% with the addition of 17%
hydrogen, 12.44% with the addition of 30% hydrogen and
15.80% with the addition of 42% hydrogen. Increase in
thermal efficiency is credited to improved combustion
because of superior combustion rate due to high flame
velocity of hydrogen.
 As hydrogen is enriched in the cylinder, the BSEC value
decreases. For example, for the hydrogen volumes of 11%,
17%, 30% and 42%, the BSEC value decreases by 3.79%,
4.66%, 11.07 and 18.60%, respectively.
 Hydrogen enhancement results in a significant reduction
are observed in the indicated specific CO2 emissions. The
maximum decrease of the CO2 emissions is observed to be
247.53 g/kW-hr in the presence of 42% hydrogen energy
content.
 With pure diesel (0% H2 content), the indicated specific CO
emission quantity is measured as 1.76 g/kW-hr; at all other
rates of hydrogen addition, the CO emission quantity is
measured as 0.78 g/kW-hr, 0.73 g/kW-hr, 0.59 g/kW-hr and
0.52 g/kW-hr respectively. Thus, the addition of hydrogen
can reduce CO emissions to a smaller value than the pre-
cision of the measurement device.
 With the addition of hydrogen, an increase of the indicated
specific hydrocarbon values is observed. For example: with
11%, 17%, 30% and 42% hydrogen additions, the indicated
specific UHC emissions increased to 0.053 g/kW-hr, 0.044 g/
kW-hr, 0.038 g/kW-hr and 0.035 g/kW-hr respectively, from
0.039 g/kW-hr (0% H2). Moreover, the total un-burnt hy-
drocarbon emissions rate is situated at an extremely small
value that the regulations allow.
 There is a remarkable drop in indicated specific smoke
emissions were observed with hydrogen addition. The
smoke emission quantity is measured as 1.347 g/kW-hr
with no hydrogen, and while measured with 11% H2, 17%
H2, 30% H2 and 42% H2 contents, the smoke emission
quantity is measured as 0.850 g/kW-hr, 0.794 g/kW-
 The smallest indicated specific NOx emission value is ob-
tained with no hydrogen and with 11% H2 and 17% H2
content, a significant increase in NOx formation is
420 450 observed. At 30% H2 and 42% H2 contents, the increase in
NOx formation is measured as 226.14% and 305.75%,
respectively. Formation of NOx is associated with the in-
cylindrical temperature rise, oxygen concentration and
reaction duration.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 8 5 8 6 e8 5 9 8
 The peak cylindrical pressure values for 0% H2, 11% H2, 17%
H2, 30% H2 and 42% H2 are 58.53 bar, 58.92 bar, 55.72 bar,
53.36 bar and 60.25 bar, respectively. The peak cylindrical
pressure boost up by 0.67% and 2.94% at a 11% and 42% H2
content and reduced by 4.8% and 8.83% for 11% and 17% H2
energy content respectively compared to the no hydrogen
state.
 The peak heat release rate is 78.07 J/0CA for the no
hydrogen case, but it is listed as 75.70 J/0CA, 69.95 J/0CA,
60.68 J/0CA and 88.04 J/0CA for11%, 17%, 30% and 42% H2
energy contents, respectively. The highest peak heat
release rate was observed to be amplified by 12.77% at a
42% H2 content compared to the no hydrogen state.
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