South Asian Journal of Business Studies

An investigation of the antecedents of turnover intentions and job hopping

behavior: An empirical study of universities in Pakistan
Sharjeel Saleem, Beenish Qamar,
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and job hopping behavior: An empirical study of universities in Pakistan", South Asian Journal of
Business Studies, Vol. 6 Issue: 2, pp.161-176, https://doi.org/10.1108/SAJBS-05-2016-0046
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Turnover
An investigation of the intentions and
antecedents of turnover intentions job hopping
behavior
and job hopping behavior
An empirical study of universities in Pakistan 161

Sharjeel Saleem and Beenish Qamar Received 20 May 2016

Revised 24 January 2017
Department of Business Administration, Accepted 7 February 2017
Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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Abstract
Purpose It is believed that dissatisfied employees are more likely to leave, but research shows that satisfied
employees also do not necessarily stay. It is important to understand why employees leave. Therefore, the purpose
of this paper is to investigate empirically the antecedents of turnover intention and job hopping, simultaneously, in
Pakistani universities. It investigates the impact of perceived alternative employment, job satisfaction and job
involvement on turnover intention and job hopping behavior, with organizational commitment as a mediator.
Design/methodology/approach The variables were measured through established questionnaires and
the results were analyzed through structural equation modeling on a sample of 250 faculty members from
both public and private universities.
Findings Results revealed that faculty members do not intend to leave or hop jobs if they are satisfied with
their jobs and this relationship is mediated by organizational commitment. Perceived alternative employment
also showed a positive relationship with employees intentions to quit; while faculty members would job hop,
if not satisfied, despite lacking substantial alternative employment opportunities.
Practical implications Research reveals that employee retention, even in developing countries, is not just
about money. Rather, the satisfaction that a person gets from his/her job or the environment in which the
employee works serves as a significant antecedent of employee retention. Thus, accordingly some well-
planned perks and rewards can serve as a source of extrinsic as well as intrinsic motivators.
Originality/value This study has investigated the impact of job satisfaction, job involvement, perceived
alternative employment, organizational commitment, turnover intention and job hopping along with the
dimensions of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in a simultaneous manner through structural
equation modeling. It will correspondingly add worth to the discussion in the literature about reasons of
employee turnover and job hopping behavior within the specific context of Pakistani universities because
there are no official statistics available regarding the number of faculty members leaving or job hopping
among various universities. In addition, not much work has been done in this regard, therefore, it shall also
provide the basis for future research studies.
Keywords Organizational commitment, Job satisfaction, Turnover intention, Job hopping,
Job involvement, Perceived alternative employment
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Our assets (employees) walk out of the door each evening. We have to make sure that they come
back the next morning (Narayana Murthy, Cofounder of Infosys).
Turnover intention has long been an important issue in research, whereas job hopping is
relatively newer with reports of an ever-increasing rate (Feng and Angeline, 2010; Ganco
et al., 2015; Khatri et al., 2001). According to the Society for Human Resource Management,
the annual turnover rate of employees in 2016 was 19 percent and it took an average time of
42 days to fill a given position. Talent Management and HR Magazine explains that for
South Asian Journal of Business
entry-level employees, it costs between 30 and 50 percent of their annual salary to replace Studies
them (Borysenko, 2015). For mid-level employees, it costs above150 percent and for highly Vol. 6 No. 2, 2017
pp. 161-176
specialized employees, it costs beyond 400 percent of their annual salary to replace them. Emerald Publishing Limited
2398-628X
Turnover has rampant direct effects on the costs (Martin et al., 1981) as well as the DOI 10.1108/SAJBS-05-2016-0046
 SAJBS performance ( James, 2011) of an organization. But there are also some indirect costs
6,2 associated with this phenomenon (Tett and Meyer, 1993; Woods and Macaulay, 1989).
The indirect costs, i.e. the decrease in the efficiency of the workers (before they truly leave
their organizations), the effect on their coworkers morale and engagement (once they leave),
and the damage to the performance (of the new entrant before a full command on the job
duties is achieved) are not easily computable variable (Staw, 1980), which makes these
162 variables even more intricate to study. Furthermore, these unfavorable impacts can become
even more influential when the employees leaving an organization are high performers
(Kwon et al., 2010; Kwon and Rupp, 2013).
In addition, it is also important to study employee turnover because turnover rates help
employers in planning and shaping the future human resource strategies for their
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organizations (Mowday, 1984). The effect of these strategies becomes more dominant when
competing in a service based industry, where the knowledge, skills and abilities of an
employee is directly related to the productivity and customer satisfaction of that
organization (Harter et al., 2002). Similarly, the fundamental product of the academic
institutions is also the aggregate experience of students, which is heavily dependent on the
faculty members of that particular institute. In such human intensive services, higher
employee turnover can lead to numerous undesirable consequences (Powell and York, 1992).
A review of literature shows, that turnover and job hopping have either been studied
separately or have been investigated in the presence of merely one or two predictors
(Avolio et al., 2004); specifically, in reference to the context of developing countries like
Pakistan and their educational sectors. As the World Economic Forum states that education
is one of the most fundamental factors in finding solutions to the problems of
underdeveloped countries and consequently leads them toward economic prosperity.
The data suggest that the achievements of a university in developed countries are
dependent on the funds and the competition to acquire finest faculty members as well as
the brightest students (Goodnight, 2012). Money does play a significant role in the
transformation of students into educated nation builders, but now the intelligence
(the knowledge of tools for living and learning), innovation and courage (to take action)
acquired by students from academic institutions has been recognized as the three most
powerful weapons for the battle of global competitiveness (Lee et al., 2004).
In contrast, developing countries like Pakistan, ranking 123rd among 139 countries in
terms of higher education and with an annual educational budget of 2.9 percent (far below
the budget recommended by UNESCO), and a literacy rate of 58.5 percent (Labour Force
Survey, 2012/2013). Considering these circumstances, the 70,000 faculty members of
universities in Pakistan are positioned as the paramount members in the struggle toward
prosperity. They have more responsibilities and a better chance of taking their students to
the forefront of economic growth. Then again, a dearth of official statistics of faculty
members that leave or job hop in Pakistan is also an alarming aspect.
Employees can voluntarily leave their jobs for various reasons (Lok and Crawford, 2001;
Muchinsky and Morrow, 1980; Peltokorpi et al., 2015). Although dissatisfied employees are more
likely to leave, engaged employees are also not always guaranteed to stay. Till now job hopping
and turnover intention have been examined in separate studies (e.g. Dane and Brummel, 2014;
Harris et al., 2014; Tambe and Hitt, 2013), therefore a study to check the simultaneous impact of
collective employee attitudes on their intentions to leave as well as job hop was imperative.
Hence the objective of this study is to contribute to the literature by investigating
whether job satisfaction (both intrinsic and extrinsic) and job involvement of faculty
members have an impact on turnover intention as well as on job hopping behavior through
the mediating effect of organizational commitment (affective, normative and continuance).
Commitment is added to the model for a better understanding of the relationships and the
use of three-dimensional model of commitment developed by Meyer and Allen (1997) was
 preferred because it has been used in a lot of previous studies (e.g. Allen and Shanock, 2013; Turnover
Dawson et al., 2015; Devece et al., 2016), but also elucidate the notion that the employees intentions and
experience commitment as three concurrent approaches encompassing affective, normative job hopping
and continuance organizational commitment (Herscovitch and Meyer, 2002).
We have also accounted for the impact of perceived alternative employment on the behavior
withdrawal decision of employees, thus investigating the reasons for the lack of actual
turnover even when job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment are 163
significant predictors of turnover intention in the context of faculty members in Pakistan.
Although a number of studies have been carried out on the subject (e.g. Alvi and Ahmed,
1987; Bodla and Hameed, 2008; Malik et al., 2010) they have, to some extent, ignored the
simultaneous impact of multiple antecedents on turnover intention and job hopping, i.e. they
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have ignored the fact that perhaps the job hopping is not merely a predictor of turnover
along with satisfaction and commitment of employees but it is also influenced by various
other variables. We have also endeavored to assess the relationship between our dependent
variables by examining the impact of turnover intention on job hopping.

2. Literature review
2.1 Job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment
Attitudes like job satisfaction and job involvement among the central concepts in
organizational psychology and have strong practical implications for human resources
management (Schultz and Schultz, 2015). Within the organizational sciences, job satisfaction is
probably the most common, as well as the oldest operationalization of workplace happiness
(Wright and Bonett, 2007). Every individual has a definite order of preferences with respect to
what that person seeks from the job (Loscocco, 1989). It is presumed that employees value both
the extrinsic as well as intrinsic aspects of the job. Some employees may intensely put
emphasis on both forms of return, some may possibly give slight emphasis on one or the other
and others may lay emphasis on one form and deemphasize the other form. However, both
types of remunerations have their contributions in determining the level of employee job
satisfaction (OReilly and Chatman, 1986). Job involvement, on the other hand, is the extent to
which a person internally identifies with the job (Bashaw and Grant, 1994) actively participates
in the job, and perceives job performance to be important to self-worth (Zopiatis et al., 2014).
Research shows that attitudes tend to cluster and categorize themselves (Schultz and
Schultz, 2015). A person, who has developed a favorable attitude toward one aspect of the
job based on unique experiences, is likely to react favorably to other related job aspects.
This can be explained by the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), which elucidates that the
norm of reciprocity among the parties involved in a good exchange relationship will result in
the feelings of mutual trust, loyalty and commitment. Thus, if one is involved in a job, one is
likely to be satisfied with the job and committed to the organization. A person who is
dissatisfied with a job may become less involved in the work and less committed to the
employer (McFarlin and Sweeney, 1992).
Literature shows that highly satisfied and highly involved employees are more dedicated
to their organizations and invest considerable energy in order to achieve organizational
goals (Ineson et al., 2013; Shore and Martin, 1989). These attitudes have a direct relationship
with organizational identity of employees, even when the organizations are going through a
change (Amiot et al., 2006). Job satisfaction can positively influence the commitment of the
employees (Muthuveloo and Rose, 2005), decrease their absenteeism (Hausknecht et al.,
2008) and actual turnover (Chen et al., 2011; Mossholder et al., 2005). Similarly, job
involvement has a positive impact on the motivation (Maertz and Griffeth, 2004) and the
commitment of the employees (Uygur and Kilic, 2009). Moreover, it mediates the relationship
between work values and organizational commitment (Ho et al., 2012).
 SAJBS Higher job satisfaction and job involvement rates lead the organizations toward better policies
6,2 and productive performance, yielding profits and prestigious experiences for both the employees
and their employers (Hernandez and Guarana, 2016; Testa, 2001). Therefore, we hypothesize that:
H1. Job satisfaction (intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic satisfaction) will positively
impact organizational commitment.
H2. Job involvement will positively impact organizational commitment.
164
2.2 Organizational commitment, turnover intention and job hopping
Organizational commitment, which further comprises of affective (the emotional attachment of
the individual with the organization), normative (the extent of employees obligations toward
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the institute) and continuance commitment (the cost that employee relates with leaving the
organization) is not merely a psychological state but it provides the rationale for positive
organizational outcomes such as performance and citizenship behavior (Hackett et al., 1994;
Meyer and Herscovitch, 2001). Many studies have found affective commitment to be the most
influential indicator associated with turnover intention (Sjberg and Sverke, 2000). Highly
committed employees shall remain on their jobs, even if new opportunities appear as compared
to less committed workers (Shore and Tetrick, 1991). Thus, a lower commitment profile leads to
an active search for another job (Morrow, 2011) voluntary withdrawal from the work (Dess and
Shaw, 2001; McClean and Collins, 2011) and an eventual turnover ( Joo and Park, 2010). On the
basis of above evidences, we argue that if turnover intention is a result of negative employee
attitudes, then the tendency to switch jobs may also be a result of such antecedents. On the
contrary, the literature suggests that job hopping also known as hobo syndrome is an internal
tendency of the employees, irrespective of the influence of antecedents like job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, etc. (Ghiselli, 1974). However, Daming and Xiaoyun (2010) found
that the respondents with a history of switching jobs responded that they job hop because they
have not yet found a satisfying place to stay. A place that can offer a better compensation plan,
allow them to utilize their skills, and provides a chance of good interpersonal relationships.
Similarly, literature shows that the process of turnover initiates with the dissatisfaction of an
employee with his job (Griffeth et al., 2000) followed by a search for other jobs (Trevor, 2001).
From this perspective, job hopping is a path that workers take to realize their ideals and to find
places that best fulfill those ideals. On the contrary, the employees who are satisfied with
the concerns of their jobs are expected to show better commitment than those who are not
(Williams and Hazer, 1986) and this relation eventually results into the prediction of turnover
intention and job hopping behavior of the employees. Therefore, we propose that:
H3a. Organizational commitment will negatively impact turnover intention.
H3b. Organizational commitment will negatively impact job hopping.

2.3 Perceived alternative employment, turnover intention and job hopping

Turnover intentions may also be a result of some external factors, like characteristics of an
organization, financial concerns, interpersonal conflicts or alternative employment
opportunities (Ganco et al., 2015). Perceived job alternatives have been ascribed different
meanings. Perceived ease of movement and perceived employability shares some conceptual
grounds with perceived alternative employment, but is mostly measured in terms of
quantity and quality of job alternatives (Griffeth et al., 2000). We define it as the perception
of convenience of obtaining another job. It is not about having a real offer available to the
employee, besides, workforces might perceive this availability even if they only think that
they can obtain a job in another place, irrespective of the time factor, it may be now or at
some other time (Lee et al., 1999; March, 1991). These employment options are mostly related
 to the same sector, but at the same time ease of movement in other sectors might also have Turnover
an impact on the turnover intention of the employees (Trevor et al., 2007). intentions and
Some research indicates that there is a direct and noteworthy relationship between job hopping
alternative employment options and turnover behavior (e.g. Jackofsky and Peters, 1983;
Laker, 2011). But some other studies do not seem to support this strength of opinion, e.g. in a behavior
meta-analysis with studies from 1978 to 1991 a very low correlation (0.27) between perceived
alternatives and turnover intention was found (Hom et al., 1992). Still, some researchers have 165
shown that it has not only a significant strong relation to individual turnover, but is also a
good indicator of forecasting turnover (Griffeth et al., 2000). For example, Granovetter (1974)
has argued that workers with a large number of prior jobs are more likely to have acquired
many professional contacts and leads about alternative employment opportunities than
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workers who have held few previous jobs. Thus, past turnover may lead to future turnover
( Judge and Watanabe, 1995). Therefore, we propose that:
H4a. Perceived alternative employment will positively impact turnover intention.
H4b. Perceived alternative employment will positively impact job hopping.

2.4 Turnover intention and job hopping

Research elucidates that the intention of the employees to stay with or leave the
organization is the concluding phase in the process of deciding their voluntary withdrawals
(Lambert et al., 2001). It is also demonstrated that turnover intention is one of the most
significant determinants of actual turnover and has a direct relation with the turnover
behavior of employees (Ahuja et al., 2007; Campbell et al., 2012). Therefore, we propose that:
H5. Turnover intention will positively impact job hopping.
Therefore, following conceptual framework is proposed on the basis of the above-mentioned
hypotheses (Figure 1).

3. Methodology
3.1 Participants and procedure
The data were obtained from the faculty members of both public and private sector
universities located in three mega cities of Punjab, i.e. Faisalabad, Lahore and Multan
districts (Population, Labour Force and Employment, 2012/2013). Punjab is the largest

Perceived
Perceived
Alternative
Alternative
Employment Turnover
Employment Turnover
Intention Intention

Job Job Organizational

Involvement Involvement Commitment

Intrinsic Job Hopping Job Hopping

Satisfaction
Job
Satisfaction
Figure 1.
Affective Normative Continuance Hypothesized
Extrinsic Commitment Commitment Commitment conceptual framework
Satisfaction
 SAJBS province in terms of population (96,545,293) and has the highest number of both public and
6,2 private universities in Pakistan (Higher Education Commission, 2012).
Data survey method was used and the questionnaires were modified in the Pakistani
context on the basis of unstructured interviews. In total, 300 respondents were contacted, out of
which 250 completed questionnaires were usable. The universities in these cities had 60 percent
public as well as 40 percent private universities which corresponds to the percentage of overall
166 universities (57 percent public and 43 percent private) (Higher Education Commission, 2012).
The sample included both male (60 percent) and female (40 percent) faculty members among
which the majority of the participants (37 percent) had spent more than five years, followed by
those participants (29 percent) who had spent two years, in their present jobs.
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3.2 Instruments
All instruments used a five point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree). Job involvement was measured by the 23-item scale designed by Kanungo
(1982) and developed by Karacaolu (2005) (Uygur and Kilic, 2009). The instrument showed
a good internal consistency ( 0.746).
To measure job satisfaction, a 20-item (ten items for intrinsic satisfaction and ten items
for extrinsic satisfaction) revised Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967)
was used (Hirschfeld, 2000). The instrument showed an acceptable internal consistency
( 0.853 and 0.759 for intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction, respectively).
Organizational commitment was measured by the Organizational Commitment
Questionnaire (Mowday et al., 1979) and 22 questions were used to measure
organizational commitment (eight items for affective commitment, eight items for
normative commitment and six items for continuance commitment). The instrument was
slightly adjusted and two questions (I think that people these days move from company to
company too often and I do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her
organization) were excluded to avoid repetition. The instrument showed good internal
consistency ( 0.714, 0.738 and 0.686 for affective commitment, normative commitment
and continuance commitment, respectively) which were acceptable (Moss et al., 1998).
To measure turnover intention, a three-item instrument by Michaels and Spector (1982)
was used ( 0.794).
Job hopping was measured by a two-item scale and the internal consistency was
( 0.621) acceptable (Moss et al., 1998).
However, we used a single item questionnaire for perceived alternative employment that
asked the respondents to indicate their perception of how easy it would be to find an
acceptable alternative employment (Michaels and Spector, 1982).

3.3 Statistical technique

In order to analyze the latent variables and the simultaneous impact of all the concerned
variables, structural equation modeling was conducted using LISREL 8.80. Our study had
two dependent variables and the fact that we wanted to analyze the simultaneous impact of
all the variables, it was imperative to use structural equation modeling (Diamantopoulos
and Siguaw, 2000). The maximum likelihood procedure was adopted and the error variances
of single-indicator constructs were set as one minus respective reliability coefficient.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Descriptive statistics and correlation matrix
Table I shows the means, standard deviations and correlations of all the variables along
with their internal consistencies in parenthesis on diagonals. The table shows a very high
correlation between some variables and a low correlation among others, but these
 Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Turnover
intentions and
(1) Job job hopping
involvement 3.48 0.320 (0.746)
(2) Intrinsic behavior
satisfaction 2.66 0.478 0.910** (0.853)
(3) Extrinsic
satisfaction 2.68 0.479 0.860** 0.814** (0.759) 167
(4) Affective
commitment 3.37 0.409 0.884** 0.752** 0.750** (0.714)
(5) Normative
commitment 4.22 0.315 0.886** 0.774** 0.755** 0.851** (0.738)
(6) Continuance
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commitment 3.59 0.428 0.874** 0.798** 0.746** 0.817** 0.832** (0.686)

(7) Turnover
intention 2.60 0.389 0.592** 0.681** 0.534** 0.420** 0.459** 0.547** (0.794)
(8) Perceived
alternative
employment 2.80 0.400 0.329** 0.378** 0.301** 0.323** 0.369** 0.432** 0.772** Table I.
(9) Job hopping 2.45 0.506 0.549** 0.661** 0.482** 0.338** 0.367** 0.449** 0.842** 0.477** (0.62) Descriptive statistics

Notes: n 250. Scale reliabilities are in parentheses along the diagonal. Correlation is significant at p o 0.01 and correlation matrix

correlations are not exceptional and to some extent are similar to the results of some other
researchers (Khatri et al., 2001).
The model revealed an excellent fit to the data. 2 test has a value of 30.9 which is non-
significant, indicating an excellent fit of the model (Kenny, 2011). The value of goodness of
fit index (GFI) is 0.97; comparative fit index (CFI) is 0.99; non-normed fit index (NNFI) is 0.98;
and normed fit index (NFI) is equal to 0.99, all of which are indicative of an excellent fit. The
value of the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is 0.0435 which shows a
good fit according to thresholds suggested by Browne and Cudeck (1993) and MacCallum
et al. (1996). The value of standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) is 0.0352 and it
shows a good fit (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000).
For overall evaluation of the model fit Hu and Bentler (1999) approach is used. This approach
suggests that structural equation model is considered good if either of these two fit index
combinations is fulfilled, i.e. CFI 0.95 and SRMR 0.09 or SRMR 0.09 and RMSEA 0.06.
Whereas, our model fulfills both of the above criteria (Hu and Bentler, 1999) (Figure 2) (Table II).

4.2 Parameter estimates

The model showed a positive path estimate from job satisfaction to organizational commitment
(0.933, po0.01) thus we fail to reject H1. However, H2, that job involvement will positively
impact organizational commitment was rejected as the result was insignificant (0.052).
Similarly, perceived alternative employment had a positive and significant path estimate
on turnover intentions (0.424, p o0.01) (H4a). On the contrary, perceived alternative
employment (H4b) showed a negative path estimate on job hopping (0.008) and was not
significant. Organizational commitment (H3a) showed a negative and significant path
estimate on both the turnover intention (0.363, p o0.01) and (H3b) job hopping (0.202,
p o0.01). Lastly, turnover intention had a positive path estimate of job hopping (0.606) and
the effect was significant at 0.01.
Moreover, the values of squared multiple correlations, which is analogous to the R2
in regression analysis and represents the amount of change elucidated by the independent
variable in the dependent variable (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000) for measurement
equations as well as for structural equations ranged between 0.413 and 0.959 (Table III).
 SAJBS Perceived
0.944
Perceived
6,2 Alternative
Employment
Alternative
Employment
0.931

0.424 Turnover
Turnover
Intention
Intention

0.913
0.008
Job Job 0.363
Involvement Involvement

168 0.052 Organizational

Commitment 0.606

Intrinsic 0.703 0.933 0.916

Satisfaction
0.202 Job Hopping
Job Job Hopping
Satisfaction 0.768
0.742
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0.743

Extrinsic 0.701
Figure 2. Satisfaction Affective Normative Continuance
Commitment Commitment Commitment
Parameter estimates
of the hypothesized
model Notes: Goodness of Fit Indices. DF = 21, 2 = 30.889 ( p = 0.0755); RMSEA = 0.0435;
SRMR= 0.0352; GFI= 0.97; CFI = 0.99; NFI = 0.98; NNFI= 0.99. *p <0.05; **p < 0.01

Path from To Estimate t-value SE

Job involvement Organizational commitment 0.052 0.188 0.245

Job satisfaction Organizational commitment 0.933** 3.071 0.294
Perceived alternative employment Turnover intention 0.424** 6.414 0.066
Perceived alternative employment Job hopping 0.008 0.109 0.072
Organizational commitment Turnover intention 0.363** 5.381 0.076
Organizational commitment Job hopping 0.202** 2.865 0.080
Table II. Turnover intention Job hopping 0.606** 7.394 0.082
Parameter estimates Note: **po 0.01

Composite reliability Average variance extracted

Job involvement 0.833 0.833

Job satisfaction 0.660 0.493
Table III. Organizational commitment 0.867 0.564
Average variance Turnover intention 0.839 0.867
extract and composite Job hopping 0.795 0.839
reliability Perceived alternative employment 0.890 0.890

4.3 Average variance extract and composite reliability

CR values above 0.60 show that indicators provide a reliable measurement of the construct
(Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000). The AVE values above 0.50 indicate that a significant
quantity of variance in indicators is represented by the underlying construct in comparison
to the variance represented by the measurement error (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000).
On the whole, CR and AVE values are comfortably above than 0.60 and 0.50, respectively,
and, therefore, point out that operationalization of the latent variables is quite good.

5. Discussion
Literature shows that disengaged and unsatisfied employees are very likely to leave, but it is
also evident that contributing and engaged employees are also not guaranteed to stay.
Frequent job switching not only has a serious impact on business productivity, but underlines
 demands for organizations to increase wages, enhance working conditions, and take greater Turnover
responsibility. Therefore, the major purpose of this study was to examine the antecedents of intentions and
employee turnover and job hopping in universities of Pakistan, simultaneously. job hopping
As the literature shows that most of the studies on turnover intention, actual turnover and
job hopping have only considered the effect of one or two predictors, specifically in reference to behavior
the context of developing countries like Pakistan and their educational sectors. Whereas, the
position of the faculty members of the institutions of higher education gives them a vantage 169
point for taking their students to the forefront of economic growth. In addition, a dearth of
official statistics of faculty members that leaves or job hop in Pakistan, also makes it crucial to
study these outcomes and their antecedents. Thus, when employees leave, it is important to
understand that are the satisfied and the unsatisfied employees leaving for the same reasons.
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Therefore, our study investigates that if lower commitment profiles have an impact on turnover
intentions, is this impact on job hopping also significant? The model showed that job
involvement and job satisfaction led to organizational commitment which in turn shows its
impact on turnover intention. Overall, these results were supportive of the model. The path
analysis was consistent with the conception that job satisfaction leads to organizational
commitment as stated by many other previous researchers (Price, 2001; Yousaf et al., 2013).
The results were significant except for job involvement. Unlike previous research (e.g.
Kanungo, 1982), the results of this study did not show a significant relationship between job
involvement and organizational commitment in this particular context. These results can be
attributed to the fact that people may become involved in their jobs because they are satisfied
with their jobs, or satisfaction may lead to commitment. It is also possible that one attitude may be
related to other attitudes, but the strength and direction of any relationship are likely to vary with
the individual involved and with the context within which the individual works (Knoop,1995).
These attitudes (organizational commitment) in turn negatively affect turnover intention
and the results are similar to previous studies (Fischer and Mansell, 2009; Mowday et al., 1982).
Besides this study has also revealed a negative relation between organizational commitment
and job hopping as well as a positive relation between turnover intention and job hopping. On
the contrary, previous research has stated that job hopping, the hobo syndrome, is not
dependent on the commitment or satisfaction of employees, but it is an internal itch that urges
them to seek for alternative options (Ghiselli, 1974). But the results here reveal that
organizational commitment negatively impacts job hopping behavior. This can be explained
by the fact that costs could also be based on social considerations, rather than on rational
economic considerations. Therefore, it may be that the sacrifices of leaving are very high, and
perceived alternatives based on multiple considerations along both economic and social
dimensions are low in highly collective and hierarchical contexts. The evaluation of the costs
associated with leaving has larger implications when a greater number of people would be
affected and involved (Powell and Meyer, 2004; Wezel et al., 2006).
The path estimates for perceived alternative employment and turnover intention showed a
significant and positive relationship, but the results did not show a significant effect of perceived
alternative employment on job hopping behavior (Mobley, 1982; Wong et al., 2012). This
represents those employees who are going to job hop, despite the availability of other alternatives.

5.1 Theoretical implications

Frequent job switching by workers causes losses for organizations and when employees leave,
not only their reasons must be inquired, but the solutions to decrease turnover must be
implemented. Therefore, the major purpose of this study was to examine the antecedents of
employee turnover and job hopping, simultaneously. Thus, this study not only investigated the
impact of employee attitudes ( job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment)
on turnover intention and job hopping, but also caters the effect of perceived alternative
employment through structural equation modeling. It adds to the literature by emphasizing the
 SAJBS fact that lower commitment profiles have an impact on both the turnover intentions as well as
6,2 the job-hopping behaviors of an employee. It will correspondingly add worth to the discussion in
the literature about reasons of employee turnover and job hopping behavior within the
specific context of Pakistani universities, as there are no official statistics available regarding
the number of faculty members leaving or job hopping among various universities.

170 5.2 Managerial implications

Whatsoever the reasons, the choice to stay or leave an organization are potentially very
expensive for both the employees and the organizations (Lee et al., 2004). This study shows that
when it comes to staff retention, even in developing countries, it is not merely about money;
rather, the satisfaction that a person gets from the job itself or the environment, in which the
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employee works, can play a very significant role (Bakuwa et al., 2013). In addition, an
organizations pay and compensation policy must also be designed with extreme care. Statistics
show that the average raise, an employee can expect is 3 percent, in contrast, if an employee
leaves the organization, however, they can look forward to an increase of 10-20 percent in their
salaries. Thus, employers must try to cultivate a system in which committed employees are
financially rewarded instead of those who job hop every few years. An environment embedded
in challenging tasks, but a clarity of roles, supportive attitudes, and little perks which increases
the organizational identification of the employees, can then lead to a positive effect on the
commitment, satisfaction and the dedication of the employees (Ngo et al., 2013). Consequently,
this study is valuable for the administrators as well as the policy makers in understanding the
utmost importance of the practices that fosters job satisfaction and organizational commitment,
especially in the case of highly productive employees.

5.3 Limitations and future implications

The cross-sectional nature of this study is a limitation of our findings, but research shows
that commitment profiles of the employees usually remain stable over time, which
demonstrates the generalizability of several such profiles (Kam et al., 2016). Similarly, future
studies can use a larger sample size, but research shows that despite the differences in
average job satisfaction levels and the antecedents of job satisfaction across nations
(Hauff et al., 2015) their implications can never be underestimated. Moreover, we have used
single source data and although research shows that common method variance does exist in
organizational research, but it does not necessarily affect the results of the analysis
(Crampton and Wagner, 1994; Fuller et al., 2016). Still, further studies can take into account
the data collected from multiple sources and can investigate turnover intentions for
individual institutions, which may provide deep insights.

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Corresponding author
Beenish Qamar can be contacted at: beenishqamar@hotmail.com

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