Scripting Screenplays: An Idea for Integrating Writing, Reading, Thinking, and Media

Literacy
Author(s): Lawrence Baines and Micah Dial
Source: The English Journal, Vol. 84, No. 2 (Feb., 1995), pp. 86-91
Published by: National Council of Teachers of English
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Scripting Screen
for ntegratin
an
Thwncinking,
Lawrence
MediaMit
BainesandMicahDial
verystepfromsavagery to civilization
is dependent upontheinventionof me-
diawhichenlargethe rangeof purely
immediateexperience andgiveit deep-
,enedas wellas widermeaningby con-
nectingit withthingswhichcanonlybe
signifiedorsymbolized."
-John Dewey(1966,232)
If you try:toibegin a conversation
with a student about a recentlyre-
leased young adult novel or a liter-
ary classic, chances are that she or he will
have preciouslittle to say.If you try to begin
a conversationwith a student about a re-
cently releasedfilm (say,the cinematicver-
sion of MichaelCrichton's JurassicPark)or a
television show (BeverlyHills90210, for ex-
ample), chances are you will become en-
Ourstudents gagedin a lively discussion.
Forbetteror worse,studentsarebecom-
knowthe
increasinglyattuned to the moving im-
movies,and ing and less patient with mere words on a
we canuse agepage. More than sixty years ago, Samuel
their Rosenkranzwrote that teachers "refuseto
familiarityin recognize the fact that they [students]are
to the picture shows, and that we
screenwriting going
activities. must adapt our literatureand composition
coursesin such a mannerthat adequaterec-
ognition is given to the fact that there are
some genuineneeds to be met"(Rosenkranz
1931, 824).
Today,VCRs exist in over seventy-five
percent of Americanhomes, television sets
stay turned on for over seven hours a day,
cable television operatorsofferhundreds of
viewing alternatives, and students spend
hours playing video games, so getting stu-
dents to spend time reading or writing is
more challenging than ever. For further
proof of the appeal of the moving image,
compare the number of teenagers in the
crowds in the video store waiting to check
out the new releases with the number of
teenagersloiteringaroundthe "newreleases"
section of books at the local library.In re-
86
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An Idea
lays:
tin Reading,
sponse to the electronicmedia'susurpation
of student attention,many state and federal
officalshaveurgentlydeliverededictsto par-
ents that they "turnoff theirtelevisions"and
insteadencouragetheirchildrento read.De-
spite such advice,the networks,Hollywood,
and cable television companies have man-
aged to eke out enoughprofitto stayin busi-
ness:Undeniably,most studentsspend more
time with nonprintmedia thanwith books.
TEN REASONSTO USE
SCREENWRITINGIN ENGLISHCLASS
Screenwritingis one effectiveway to use
students'familiaritywith the electronicme-
dia to fosterreading,writing,and media lit-
eracy Screenwritingin Englishclass has the
followingpositiveattributes:
1. Screenwriting motivatesstudentsto
write.Becausemoststudentshavespent
moretimein frontof theirtelevisionsets
andin movietheatersthanathomeread-
ingliteraryclassics,theyareinterested in
"writinga movie."
2. Screenwriting involvesa full-blown
writingprocessandmore.Students
brainstorm, research, writecharacter
biog-
raphies,visually constructscenes,critique
thewritingof peers,andmustbe ableto
writedialogueaswellas de-
effectively
scription.
3. Screenwriting requiresbothindividual
andgroupwork.Whilemuchof thein-
itialwritingin theunitrequiresthatstu-
dentsworkindividually, whenit comes
timeto shootthevideo,studentsmustne-
gotiatetheirindividualroleswithintheir
groups,discuss,andselectthescreenplay
to be shot,anddecideon howto go
aboutshootingit.
4. Screenwriting forces students to think
in terms of camera angles, music,
words, and images. Screenwritingsurrep-
titiouslyteachesstudentshow the compo-
nents of the electronicmediawork to
communicatetheirmessages.Presto!Me-
dia literacy
5. Screenwriting invokes all of the seven
intelligences hypothesized by Howard
1995
February
 Gardnerin Frames of Mind (1983). Stu-
dents write dialogueand description(lin-
guistic);arecompelledto create,visualize,
write, and negotiatemeaningas individu-
als (intrapersonal)and with other stu-
dents (interpersonal);calculatetime
intervalsand match time expectations
againstthe scriptwritingparadigm(mathe-
matical);furnishmusic and sound effects
to accompanythe action (musical);map
out scenes using existinglocationsor
buildingsuitablesets (spatialand kines-
thetic);and put everythingtogetherin a
filmedor livepresentation
(a synthesisof
diversetalents).
6. Screenwriting involves hands-on, active
learning for students in a real-life situ-
ation. Studentsfind it virtuallyimpossi-
ble to hide or slough off duringthis
activity
7. Screenwriting has been the most lucra-
tive writingprofessionin the twentieth
century.Whilemanywritersstruggleat
makinga livingchurningoutnovelsand
poetry,screenwriters arerelatively well-
paidandhealthyWilliamFaulkner, James
T.Farrell,AldousHuxley,E ScottFitzger-
ald,TheodoreDreiser,RingLardner, John
Steinbeck,RaymondChandler, Richard
Wright,Nathaniel West,GoreVidal,Beth
Henley,ArthurMiller,EdwardAlbee,
HaroldPinter,Tennessee Williams,Billy
Wilder,EliaKazan,NeilSimon,David
Cronenburg, StephenKing,WilliamGold-
man,JamesMichener, andothershave
writtenscreenplays at one timeor another
in theircareers.Writers inHollywood,
1915-1951(Hamilton1990)recounts
how a bevyof American literarystalwarts
wereluredto Hollywoodby thepromise
of big dollars.In 1939,E ScottFitzgerald
wasmaking$1,500a weekwritingin Hol-
lywood,whilehis bookroyaltiesduring
1939broughtin a grandtotalof $33.00.
8. Screenwritingmaylead to scripts
whichmaybe filmedby studentsor of-
fered to the drama department for the
production of an original play or video.
If the screenplaysget filmed, the videos
could be shown at open house, after
ChannelOne viewing (if the school sub-
scribes),or during"dead"times during
the school year (such as on exam days or
the last day of the gradingperiod). Other
inter-disciplinaryconnectionsare cer-
tainlypossible-math and industrialarts
classes could help design and build sets,
art classescould paint and shape them,
science classescould help develop special
effects,historyclassescould help supply
pertinentbackgroundinformationabout
certainperiodsof time.
EnglishJournal
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9. Screenwriting is writing with portfolio
possibilities. Some literarygiantsdid not
transfertheirbrillianceto the screenbe-
cause they could not adjusttheirwriting
stylesforfilm.Writingwellforthescreen
is challenging,
intensework,andit is cer-
tainlydifferent
thanwritingpureprose.
Whileprovidingstudentswithanother
avenueof expression withwhichto ex-
a
periment, screenplay anda videowould
alsoaddcontemporary touchesto anystu-
dentportfolio.
10. Screenwriting is fun. Studentsoften
groanwhentheyreceivewritingassign-
mentafterwritingassignment, but
complaints usuallyrecede(atleastmo-
mentarily) duringa screenwriting unit.
Studentsseemto enjoya feelingof accom-
plishmentwhentheyseeworkstheyhave
createdin printandon film.
SOURCESAND ACTIVITIES
I adapted materialsfor the screenplay
unit from four major sources-two of Syd
Field's books, The Screenwriter's Workbook
(1984) and Screenplay:The Foundationsof
(1981); John Gardner'sTheArt
Screenwriting
of Fiction(1984); and the last hundredpages
of William Goldman's Adventuresin the
Screen Trade(1984) in which Goldman
transposesone of his shorter short stories
into an actual screenplay I have used the
screenwritingunit concurrentlywith other
classroomactivitiesor as a unit in itself.
Listedbelow are a chronologyof activi-
ties and writing assignmentsthat can help
studentsto completetheirown screenplays.
Activity One: Brainstorming for Ideas
Required writing:
Favoritefilmslist
Elementsof film identification
Idea for a scriptin one sentence
To begin, students do three short, shot-
gun writing assignments.
First, they list their all-time favorite
films (at least ten). Next, they identify com-
mon elements on their favorite films list. Do
they enjoy suspense, action, westerns, detec-
tive stories, romance, adventure, or docu-
mentaries?
The third assignment, composed after
the first two assignments have been com-
pleted, is a description of two or three films
that they would like to see made. One stu-
dent, Jayne, wrote, "I'dlike to see a film of a
romance between a black man and a black
woman, without any explicit sex or psycho
87
 killers in it. Real love." From these three
pieces-the favoritefilms list, the descrip-
tion of the elementsthatthey enjoyseeingin
films, and the idea generation for their
scripts-students jot down a generalidea for
a film in one sentence on a sheet of paper.
This one-sentencesummaryshould answer
the question,"Whatis the film about?"
Activity Two: Structuring the Idea
Required writing:
Break-downof the script idea into set-
ting, conflict, and resolution with 3-4
sentencesabout each section.
Whereasnovelists have the freedom to
"letthe story take over,"screenwritersmust
abide by a set patternof development.Ac-
cordingto Field,"Ascreenplayfollowsa cer-
tain, lean, tight, narrativeline of action, a
line of development ... [which] always
moves forward,with direction toward the
resolution"(1984, 12). Basically,the screen-
play contains three parts:the establishment
of the setting, the introductionof the con-
the resolution.
Becausemost flict,Atand
the beginningof the movie, Raidersof
studentshave the LostArk, for example, directorStephen
spentmore Spielberg establishesthe settingby showing
timein ront the discoverysomewherein the MiddleEast
oJ their of an ancient artifact thought to possess
sets
television mystical powers. The conflict comes when
andin movie the lead character,IndianaJones, discovers
that the Nazis, who are seeking the same
theatersthan artifact, try to keep him and his companions
athome
from their search. The resolution involves
reading
Jones' escape from the Nazis and the Nazis'
literary
eventualcomeuppance.
classics,
they Usually,about half of a screenplayis de-
areinterested voted to the main action, or the conflictof a
with approximatelya fourth used to
a story,
in "writing the setting and another fourth to
movie." establish
provide resolution.Studentswrite several
a
sentences (most students do it in three or
four sentences) for each section in order to
flesh out theirideas for the threepartsof the
story.
For example,Kelidescribedthe conflict
in her storythis way:
Diane can'tstandher mother'snew
boyfriend,Tyrone.Somethingabout
him gives Diane the creeps.The mom
acts totallydifferent,kind of like one
of Diane'smore immaturefriends,
when Tyroneis around.Tyronenever
talksabouthis work, says he is "an
independentbusinessman."One night
88
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whenshegoesoutwitha wildfriend
(Shantell),Dianesneaksintoa night-
club.In thenightclub,shespotsTy-
roneat a tablewitha woman.
AlthoughDianecomesup andsays
"hello,"
Tyrone actslikehe doesn'trec-
ognizeher.
Activity Three: CharacterBiographies
Required writing:
Listof all main characterswith briefde-
scriptionsabout each
In-depth description of at least one
main character
Studentslist adjectivesor write a para-
graphdescribingthe physicaland emotional
dimensions of all majorcharacters.For ex-
ample,Juan describedone of his characters
this way:
Garthis likeClintEastwoodprobably
wasat 16, doesn'tsaymuch,isn'tthat
good-looking, butstillhasallthese
highschoolgirls,andevensomecol-
legegirlscrazyforhisbod.Theguys
don'treallylikehimbecausethey
knowthatif theypickon him,he'sgo-
ing to hitback.Andhe'sgoingto hit
backhard.
Next, studentszero in on one (or more)
main character(s)who will be the focus of
the screenplay and write in more detail
about them. These biographies might in-
clude a physicaldescription(height,weight,
usual type of dress),informationconcerning
the way the character sits, walks, and
speaks; the place in which he/she lives,
friends,job, hobbies, mannerisms,political
beliefs, habits, and other pertinent details.
The phrase that many writing teachersre-
peat often, "Show,don'ttell,"is equallycriti-
cal in getting students to createbelievable,
interestingcharactersfor film.
For his in-depth characterbiography,
Will wrote:
Joeyis an officeworker.Hewearsa tie
andsportscoat to workeventhough
he hatesties.He'sneatandtidy
aroundothers,butwhenhe works
alone,his personalappearanceleaves
much to be desired .... Some days,
he'sthemostintelligentmanon the
planet.He canworkanymathematical
equation,solve any problemwith the
system,and completetaskswith inhu-
manspeedandefficiencyThenthere
arethosedayswhenhe'stotally
snapless.Likethe time he left the
printeron and went for a coffeebreak,
February1995
 onlytocomebackto2,463copiesof
"YourPrinter
andYou."
ActivityFour:DescribingPlot
and Settingby Scene
Requiredwriting:
writtenout on 3"x 5"
Scenes/locations
indexcards.
Oncestudentshavesketchedouta basic
storylineand know the maincharacters in
theirstories,theyarereadyto begindescrib-
ing the settingandthe plot. I showa video
montageof the firstminute(afterthe cred-
its) fromtheopeningof thefilmsTheChoco-
lateWar,SounderToKilla Mockingbird, The
Outsiders, I
Shipof Fools, am theCheese,The
ColorPurple,Hamlet,and TheRockingHorse
WinnerAfterseeingthe video,studentsdis-
cussthewordsandtheimagesevidentin the
firstminuteof eachfilmthathelpedestab-
lish its setting.Studentswritea shortsum-
mary of their openingscene on an index
card.
To help show how authors change
scenes to keep the actionlively,I ask the
classto analyzehow Shakespeare shiftedlo-
cationsin the first few pages of Macbeth.
Specifically,the firstscene of Macbethin-
volves threewitchesrecitinga riddlein a
desertedheath;the secondis at KingDun-
can'scampoutsideof Forres.Forthe third,
it'sback to the heathand the witches;the
fourthtakesplacein a roominsideDuncan's
castlein Forres,andthe fifthis at Inverness,
Macbeth's castle.
Studentsget out all of their previous
writings(character sketches,plot summary,
description of the settingon an indexcard)
and spreadthemout so theycan see all of
themat once. Thenthey decidea possible
seriesof eventsthatmighthappento their
main character(s).On 3" x 5" index cards,
studentswriteno more than one or two sen-
tences about the locations that the main
charactermight visit.
Matt, for example, wanted to write a
storyabouta footballplayer,a seniorin high
school, who gets caughtcheatingon his final
exam in English, thus endangering his
chancesat graduationand an athleticschol-
arship. The first scene showed the senior
cruising the hallways, talking with his
friendsbetween classes.In the second scene,
the senior was at the footballpracticefield
wherethe teamworkedout afterschool. The
third scene moved to the coach's office,
EnglishJournal
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wherea coachtellshimabouta possiblevisit
by a recruiterfroma big-namecollege.The
fourthscenetookplaceat home,wherethe
senior strugglesto understandhis school
notes, then constructsa cheat sheet on a
scrapof paper.In this manner,Mattvisual-
izedthebasiclocalesforhis story.
ActivityFive:Backtrackthe Main
CharacterTwenty-fourHoursBeforethe
StoryTakesPlace
Requiredwriting:
Shortpieceof fictionthatputsthe main
character intoactionfora day
When I firststartedaskingstudentsto
write scripts,I discoveredthat manystu-
dentsattemptedto begintheirstoriesfrom
theverybeginningratherthanin mediasres.
Backtracking themaincharacter fortwenty-
fourhoursbeforethestorytakesplacefamil-
iarizes the student with the thought
processesof themaincharacter(s) at themo-
ment that the screenplayopens.Somestu-
dentsenjoywritingthe backtrackso much
thattheywantto begintheirscreenplays a
day earlier.That is fine, but students still
shouldbe encouragedto writeanother24-
hour backtrackfrom whence the story
opens.
Activity Six: Getting Students Familiar
with the Format of the Screenplay
Required writing:
A briefscreenadaptationof a shortstory
done in groups.
Thereis nothing arduousabout the for-
mat forscreenplays.The nameof the charac-
ter who is speakingis written in all-capital
letters in the middle of a page (about four
inches from the left edge of the paper)over
the dialogue,which is single-spacedand in-
dented about 10 spaces from the left margin.
Descriptions of how characters deliver lines
may be written in parenthesis with the dia-
logue. Directions about where and when the
action takes place are written in all capital
letters flush against the left margin. Two
lines should be skipped in between lines of
dialogue and stage directions.
To get students familiar with the format
of a screenplay, I assign a group project
where they transpose short stories with
much dialogue or action (such as Heming-
way's "The Indian Camp" or a scene from
Ernest Gaines' "The Sky is Gray") into
screenplays. I keep copies of screenplays
89
 fromseveralpopularfilms in class as exam-to videotape in the classroomor on school
ples. grounds. Most groups want to film after
school, so I use the video camerasfurnished
Activity Seven: Writing the Screenplay
by parentsof groupmembersor checkvideo
Requiredwriting: camerasout with the libraryafterschool.
Initialdraftof a screenplay.
Afterall videos have been shot and the
Field (1984) suggests that the main videotapes and scripts turned in, students
character,the dramaticpremise,and the cir- respondindividuallyon a groupassessment
cumstancessurroundingthe actionbe intro- form concerning each member'scontribu-
duced within the firstfew pagesof the script. tion (includingtheir own) to the group. In-
In other words, all the work assignedin the evitably,it will take some groups longer to
previous activities-the character sketch, produce a finished video than others. I al-
the screenplayparadigm(in which students ways give non-negotiable deadlines first,
Duringthe decided on conflict,setting,and resolution), then negotiateonce I see studentsfeverishly
screenwriting the 24-hour backtrack,the ten to twenty workingto finishtheirprojects.
the Few activitiesmatch the excitement of
unit,students of a short samplescreenplay
notecards,
have an
adaptation
on
wantto write the construction
story-should impact the premiere of a student-produced, stu-
of the first few pages. In dent-scripted, student-acted video. How-
andfilm the most films, the opening ten minutes or so ever, to keep the level of excitement in
bestvideo involves following the main character scripts and videos high, premieresare usu-
evermade. aroundso that the audiencecan get a "feel" ally limited to two to four (depending on
for the story. length) per week.
Studentsuse their index cardsas a base
THE POWEROF SCREENWRITING
structurearoundwhich to build the action
Becausemanyproductsof the electronic
of the story and often revise their cards
media aspireto be nothingmorethanprofit-
through the first day of filming. Length of able pap and succeed beautifullyat it, edu-
screenplaysvarywith each student'slevel of cators have often viewed television, video,
interest,attentionspan, and patience. Gen-
and film with a certaindegree of contempt.
erally,one page of a script is equivalentto
one minute of screen time, so a script of True,the languageof film and televisionis
not as sophisticated as that of literature
twenty-fivepages would last approximately
(Baines 1993). But, Ong (1967, 1982) has
twenty-fiveminutes.
pointed out that film and televisionstill rely
Activity Eight: Peer Editing, Shooting primarilyon words to communicate their
the Video, Showing Off the Results.
messages.Televisionshows and movies are
Required writing: derivedfromwrittenscriptswhich are con-
A workingscript structed and revisedwell before any actual
Editingremarks productionbegins.
Groupassessment Screenwritingis difficult, challenging
During peer editing, students get into work involvingwriting,rewriting,and more
groupsof four to six and sharetheirscreen- rewriting.It is a way to get previouslylacka-
plays. Every student reads the scripts of all daisical students to produce stacks of writ-
members of the group with the intent of de- ten work about characters, plot, setting,
ciding which screenplay would likely make dialogue, conflict, and description. In addi-
the best film. Each student responds to all tion, students are compelled to think criti-
screenplays, noting out good points, scenes cally about writing, images, and sounds;
that they did not like or understand, and they experience first-hand how nonprint
parts of the story that might be difficult to media can be manipulated for specific pur-
capture on film. The group votes on which poses; they collaborate actively with their
screenplay to shoot and who will act as the peers and use a variety of skills and intelli-
stars, the cinematographer, the set designer, gences. Perhaps most importantly, during
and the director. the screenwriting unit, students want to
Two class periods during the unit are write and film the best video ever made. And
"on the set" days when I check out video when students want to do well, teaching is a
cameras from the library and allow students blast.

90 February1995

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 WorksCited ScreenplayResources
Baines,Lawrence.1993. Aspectsof Language in Eastman, Charles.1969.LittleFaussandBigHal-
Literatureand Film.Unpublisheddisserta- sey.New York: Straus,andGiroux.
Farrar,
tion,AnnArbor,MI:University of Michigan. Faragoh,Francis.1981. LittleCaesarMadison,
Dewey,John. 1966. [c. 1916] Democracy and WI:University of WisconsinPress.
Education. NewYork:FreePress. E Scott.1978. [c. 1938] ThreeCom-
Fitzgerald,
Field,Syd. 1981. Screenplay: TheFoundations of rades. Carbondale,IL: SouthernIllinois
Screenwriting.New York:Dell. Press.
Workbook.
1984. TheScreenwriter's New Goodrich,Francis,AlbertHackett,FrankCapra,
York:Dell. andJoSwerling.1986.It'sa Wonderful A
Life:
Gardner, John. 1984. TheArt of Fiction.New New
Screenplay. York:St. Martin's.
York:AlfredKnopf. Sayre,Joel, and WilliamFaulkner.1981. [c.
Gardner,Howard.1983. Framesof Mind.New 1936] TheRoadto Glory.Carbondale, IL:
York:BasicBooks. SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress.
Goldman, William.1984.Adventures intheScreen Stone,Oliver,and RichardBoyle.1987. Oliver
Trade. NewYork:Dell. PlatoonandSalvador.
Stone's NewYork:Vin-
Hamilton,Ian.1990.Writers in Hollywood 1915- tageBooks.
1941. NewYork:HarperandRow. Lawrence Bainesteaches
at FloridaStateUniversity
Ong,Walter.1967.ThePresence oftheWord. New in Tallahassee.
MicahDialis a research
associate
for
Haven:YaleUniversity Press. educationand trainingprograms with EDASin
-. 1982. OralityandLiteracy.
New Haven: Houston.
YaleUniversity Press.
Rosenkranz, Samuel.1931. "English at the Cin-
ema."EnglishJournal 20:10(Dec.):824.

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