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Canning and Fish Packaging Technology

(2+1)
M.H. Bhandary, C.V. Raju and S.A.Shanmugam

Overview

The course comprises of two parts; canning and packaging. The thermal processing of fish, commonly
referred as canning, is an important method of preservation of food, has gained commercial
importance. Definition of canning and its principal advantages over other methods of preservation has
been explained in the first unit. The historical development in canning process, tin plate technology
and advances in microbiology of food which helped in understanding the spoilage process has been
dealt. The importance of different unit operations in the fish canning emphasizing the quality of end
product has been explained. The theory of thermal process with concept of D value, F value and Z
value has been explained. Determination of thermal process using various tools is important aspect
and needs careful consideration for quality assurance of processed products. The nature of different
spoilage encountered in canned foods has been explained. The processes of canning for different
commercially important fish and shellfish have been detailed. The concept of HTST process and
Aseptic packaging has been explained with specific examples. The use of different metal containers
for canning of fish has been described.

The concept and definition of packaging of fish and fishery products have been explained. Use of
glass, plastics and regenerated cellulosic casings explaining manufacturing process and properties
have been explained in detail. The closure of glass containers is different from metal can containers
both in terms of operation and material used has been highlighted in the course content.

The theoretical instruction has been supplemented by practical classes. The canning of different fish
and shellfish and quality evaluation of fish cans have been explained.

Contents:

Unit 1 - Canning as a method of preservation

1.1.Introduction to Canning
1.2.Definition of canning
1.3.Steps involved in canning
1.4.Advantages of canning

Unit 2 - Historical developments in canning technology

2.1.Historical developments in canning technology
2.2.Landmarks in the development of can manufacture
2.3.Progress in thermal processing
2.4.Developments in fish canning industry

Unit 3 - Unit operations in canning

3.1.What is unit operation?
3.1.1.Raw materials and other ingredients for canning
3.1.2.Desirable characteristics of marine products for canning
3.1.3.Portions of fish used for canning
3.1.4.Ingredients for canning
3.1.4.1.Salt
3.1.4.2.Vegetable oils
3.1.4.3.Other ingredients
3.2. Different unit operation in fish canning
3.2.1.1.Preparation of raw material for canning
3.2.1.2.Washing
3.2.1.3.Dressing
3.2.1.4.Brining
3.2.1.5.Precooking
3.2.2.1.Filling of cans
3.2.2.2.Methods of filling
3.2.2.3.Precautions to be taken during filling
3.2.2.4.Problems caused by over filling of cans
3.2.2.4.1.Head space in cans
3.2.2.4.1.1.Importance of maintaining the desired head space
3.2.3.1.Exhausting of filled cans
3.2.3.2.Definition for Exhausting
3.2.3.3.Vacuum inside the can and its measurement
3.2.3.4.Methods available for measurement of can vacuum
3.2.3.5.Air inside food cans
3.2.3.6.Purpose (or objectives) of exhausting
3.2.3.7.Methods of Exhausting
3.2.3.7.1. Heat /thermal exhausting
3.2.3.7.2. Mechanical Exhausting
3.2.3.7.2.1.Advantages
3.2.3.7.1.2.Disadvantages
3.2.3.7.3. Steam injection method of exhausting
3.2.3.7.3.1.Advantages of steam injection method
3.2.3.7.3.2.Ideal vacuum inside the can
3.2.4.Can closing or seaming of cans
3.2.4.1.Purpose of can closing /seaming
3.2.4.2.Double seamers
3.2.4.2.1.Inner construction/structure of completed a double seam
3.2.4.2.2.Seam dimensions
3.2.4.2.3.Factors affecting quality of double seam
3.2.4.2.4.Testing of quality of a double seam
3.2.4.2.5.Steps involved in Examination of double seam
3.2.4.3.Other seam testing methods
3.2.4.4.Seam defects
3.2.5. Heat processing or retorting of cans
3.2.5.1.Horizontal and Vertical retorting
3.2.5.2.Precautions to be taken during heat processing
3.2.5.3.Important objectives of retorting
3.2.5.4.Factors which influence thermal process for cans
3.2.5.5.Continuous type retorts
3.2.5.5.1.Important advantages of continuous retorts/ sterilizers
3.2.5.5.1.1.Hydrostatic sterilizer
3.2.6.Can cooling, labelling and storage
3.2.6.1.Defects arising due to improper cooling
3.2.6.2.Mediums used for can cooling and the limits
3.2.6.3.Methods of Cooling
3.2.6.4.Quality of water in can cooling
3.2.6.5.Labelling
 3.2.6.6.Storage of cans

Unit 4 - Thermal process for canned foods

4.1.Thermal Processing
4.2.Classification of acidity foods
4.3.Severity of thermal process
4.3.1.Pasteurization
4.3.2.Sterilization
4.4.Relationship between acidity and severity of the process
4.5.Heat Resistance of Microorganisms
4.5.1.Measures of Heat resistance of Microorganisms
4.5.2.Decimal reduction time
4.5.3.Decimal reduction times (D values) of bacteria
4.6.Time temperature relationship in bacterial destruction and thermal death time
of bacteria
4.6.1.Thermal Death Time (TDT)
4.6.2.Thermal Death Time (TDT) curve on a semilog paper
4.6.2.1.F. value of the organism
4.6.2.2.F0 Value
4.7.Heat penetration in canned foods
4.7.1.Cold spot
4.7.2.Typical heating and cooling curves of convection and conduction heating
foods at the cold spot
4.7.3.Equipments for the determination of heat penetration
4.7.4.Method of determining heat penetration in the can
4.8.General method of process calculation
4.8.1.Calculation of Fo value
4.8.2.Lethality of heat during heating and cooling
4.8.3.Calculation of Fo Value
4.9.High Temperature Short Time (HTST) Processing
4.9.1.Two methods of applying HTST technique
4.10.Aseptic Packaging
4.10.1.Product sterilization
4.10.1.1. Indirect heat exchangers
4.10.1.2.Direct heat exchangers
4.10.2.Sterilization of the packaging
4.10.3.Maintaining sterile conditions during plant operation

Unit 5 - Changes in canned foods and spoilage

5.1.Changes in canned foods and spoilage
5.1.1.Changes taking place during processing
5.1.1.1.Desirable changes
5.1.1.2.Undesirable changes
5.1.2.Changes during storage of processed cans
5.2.Spoilage in canned foods
5.2.1.Bulged (swollen) cans
5.2.1.1. Flipper
5.2.1.2. Springer
5.2.1.3. Soft swell
5.2.1.4. Hard swell
5.2.2.Causes of spoilage in canned foods
5.2.2.1.Physical causes
5.2.2.2.Chemical causes
5.2.2.3. Microbial causes
 5.2.2.3.1.Under-processing
5.2.2.3.2.Post-processing spoilage
5.2.2.4.Other causes of spoilage
5.2.2.5.Problems (spoilages) in canned marine products
5.2.2.5.1. Sulphide blackening or iron sulphide blackening
5.2.2.5.2. Curd or adhesion
5.2.2.5.3. Blue discolouration
5.2.2.5.4. Honey combing
5.2.2.5.5. Struvite formation
5.2.2.5.6. Retort burn
5.2.2.5.7. Case hardening

Unit 6 - Canning of commercially important fishes and shellfishes

6.1.Canning of commercially important fishes
6.1.1.General principles and methods followed in canning
6.1.2.Fish canning
6.2.Canning of individual category to fish
6.2.1.Salmon and Salmon like fishes
6.2.1.1.Specific problems encountered in salmon canning
6.2.2.Tuna and tuna like fish
6.2.2.1.Classification of tuna meat based on colour
6.2.2.2.Changes taking place by precooking and cooling
6.2.2.3.Various styles of packing of tuna meat in cans
6.2.3.Canning of sardine and sardine like fish
Canning of crustaceans
6.2.3.1.Canning of Shrimp
6.2.3.2.Canning of Crab
6.2.4.Canning of Molluscs
6.2.5.Canning of Cephalopods

Unit 7 - Fish Packaging

7.1.Introduction to Packaging
7.2.Early Packaging
7.3.Functions of Packaging
7.3.1.Protection and preservation
7.4.Presentation of the product
7.4.1.Labeling
7.4.1.1.Name of Food
7.4.1.2.Minimum durability
7.4.1.3.Quantity
7.4.1.4.Ingredients list
7.4.1.5.Name and address of manufacturer
7.4.1.6.Country of origin
7.4.1.7.Character size
7.4.1.8.Bar coding
7.5.Levels of Packaging
7.6.Packaging Materials

Unit 8 - Metal Containers

8.1.Metal Containers
8.1.1.Advantages of metal containers
8.1.2.Base plates and Tin plates
 8.1.3.Electrolytic chromium coated steel (ECCS)
8.1.4.Advantages and disadvantages of ECCS over tin plate
8.1.5.Aluminium
8.1.5.1.Advantages of Aluminium as a food can
8.1.5.2.Disadvantages
8.1.6.Lacquers used in cans
Types of metal containers
8.1.6.1.Three piece cans
8.1.6.2.Two piece cans
8.1.6.3.DRD Cans

Unit 9 - Plastics for Packaging

9.1.Plastics for packaging
9.2. Polyolefins
9.2.1.Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE)
9.2.1.1.Limitations of LDPE
9.2.2. Ethylene vinyl acetate
9.2.3.Linear Low density polyethylene (LLDPE)
9.2.4. High density Polyethylene (HDPE)
9.2.5.Ethylene propylene copolymers
9.2.6.Polypropylene (PP)
9.3. Vinyl Plastics
9.3.1.Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
9.3.2.Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
9.3.3.Ethylene Vinyl alcohol Copolymer (EVOH)
9.3.4.Polystyrene
9.3.5.Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
9.3.6.Polyester or Polyethylene terephthatate (PET)
Condensation polymers
9.3.7.Polyamides or Nylons
9.3.7.1.Important properties of Nylon
9.3.8.Regenerated cellulose film
9.3.9.Each film designated using codes

Unit 10 - Manufacture of plastic packages

10.1.Manufacture of plastic packages
10.1.1.Making of containers and bottles from plastics
10.1.1.1.Extrusion
10.1.1.1.1.Extruding the sheet
10.1.1.1.2.Co-extruding the sheet
10.1.1.2.Thermoforming
10.1.1.3.Injection Moulding
10.1.1.4.Blow moulding
10.1.2.Flexible packaging from plastics
10.1.2.1.Film blowing
10.1.2.2.Solvent casting
10.1.2.3.Calendaring
10.1.2.4.Coating of plastics
10.1.2.5.Vacuum metalizing
10.1.2.6.Dispersion and lacquer coating
10.1.2.7.Extrusion coating
10.1.2.8.Lamination
10.1.2.8.1.Extrusion laminating
10.1.2.9.Co-extrusion
Unit 1 - Canning as a method of preservation

1.1.Introduction to Canning
It has been a great struggle for man from the beginning not only to collect and
produce food but also to preserve the produced food. Hence, several food
preservation methods such as sun drying, salt curing and drying, smoking, chilling
using ice etc. were developed from the very early days of civilization. The practice of
keeping the food in metal/glass containers and heat processing came into existence
in the late 18th century. This process of preservation is referred as canning, which is
the verb form of the word can which means a metal container.

1.2.Definition of canning
Canning is a method of food preservation in which food is packed in metal or glass or
plastic containers, sealed air tight and heated sufficiently to destroy the spoilage,
pathogenic and food poisoning organisms making the food safe for consumption.

1.3.Steps involved in canning

The steps involved in the canning process are as follows.
Pre-processing operations: Depending on the nature of the food, different
preprocessing operations are carried out. Washing, separation of edible parts,
cleaning, cutting into desired size and shape, brining, precooking, blanching, frying
etc are done prior to filling of the can. The difference in canning method for various
foods stuffs lies in this stage.
Can filling:The preprocessed food is filled in to the cans along with suitable filling
medium. The quantity of food to be filled varies with the size of the can. Sufficient
space has to be provided between the lid and the top layer of the food.
Exhausting: The exhausting is the process to remove the air and gases inside the
filled cans. This is achieved either by using steam or by creation of vacuum by a
pump. The removal of air prior to can closing creates vacuum in the head space.
Can closing/seaming: Can closing or seaming is a process wherein, the lid and the
body of the can are tightly sealed. This is done by can seamer. Can closing should
be airtight preventing the exchange of gases between atmosphere and inside of the
can.
Heat processing (Retorting): Retorting is a process where the closed cans are
subjected to heat processing at high temperature to destroy spoilage and pathogenic
microorganisms. This is the most important step in canning. The temperature and
duration of heat processing depend on the type of food, size and shape of can
Cooling of the cans: After heat processing, cans are cooled immediately either in air
or more commonly in water to the ambient temperature. Cooled cans are dried,
labeled and stored.

1.4. Advantages of canning

Canned products are safe and will not cause any ill health (or allergy etc)
 Canned product are ready to serve products and hence instantly available
for consumption with little or no further preparation for the table.
Canned product can be made available at any place any time.
Canned products do not require special storage facility such as cold
storage. Ordinary room temperature storage is sufficient.
As inedible portions of foods stuffs are removed, it represents concentrated
form of food
Canned food has long shelf life measured in years not in weeks or months.
The shelf life is about 2 years.
Wide range of food products can be preserved.
Unit 2 - Historical developments in canning technology

2.1.Historical developments in canning technology

It is well known that man learnt the art of food preservation even in the prehistoric
days. However, the principle of food enclosed in a can/bottle and subjecting it to heat
so that the food could be preserved for a long time was developed by Nicholas
Appert, a French confectioner.

In the early 17th century, the scientific community was involved in establishing
whether life develops from the living things or from lifeless materials. John Needham
in 1745 put heated food in clean bottles and the food spoiled in few days due to
microorganisms and he gave the theory of spontaneous generation of life. However,
later it was realized that he had forgotten to use cleaned sanitised lids or closures
which led to microbial contamination.

Napoleon, the then ruler of France, had ambition to conquer greater part of the world.
The French army moved not only throughout Europe but also to Africa, Asia and East
Indies Islands. As French sailors of the navy had to remain in sea for a long time and
during this period they depended on dried foods, salted foods. Several of them died
because of diseases including nutritional deficiency like scurvy. This made Napoleon
to announce a prize of 12,000 Franks to anyone who preserves food for a long time
without any loss of nutrients. Food was the main business of Nicholas Appert, and
this announcement attracted him to prepare various foods in proper manner. He filled
them in glass containers and closed air tight using closures and subjected to heat
treatment. He worked from 1795 to 1804 and preserved more than 50 food products.
The products were given to French Navy officers to verify whether the products
remained good not only in temperate climate but also in the tropics, where the
temperature is high.

Apperts work not only got several accolades for him, but also responsible for the
development of several food preservation industries in various countries. The method
of preservation described by Appert is more or less the same as followed even today
and thus referred to as Appertization.

The present day canning technology has evolved from inputs from different fields like
food microbiology, can making technology and the science of heat processing.

2.2.Landmarks in the development of can manufacture

Year Development

1810 : Peter Durand developed tin plate, i.e. tin coated steel sheets. This helped in use of
metal cans instead of glass bottles. Soldering technology was used in the
preparation of cans and closing
1824 : Ganole developed the method for exhausting and closing the can by soldering.
However, the patent for this technology was given to Fostier in 1839.

1833 : Angel Bert developed reusable cans.

1847 : Drop press and pendulum press lead to good progress in can and lid manufacture.

1858 : Improved method of soldering of can which led to higher efficiency in can
production.

1876 : Hove developed floating soldering equipment. Peltier developed lock-joint system
for can body.

1900 : Max and Charles Ames (Brothers) developed can closing by double seaming method
to close the cans with lid without soldering. The development of rubber sealing
compound for the can lid helped in airtight sealing.

2.3.Progress in thermal processing

In Apperts process, the maximum temperature reached was 1000C. Hence, for
some foods, a long time heat process extending upto 3 to 4 hours was required to
prevent spoilage. In order to reduce the heat processing time, temperature more than
1000C was required. Fostier in 1839 used common salt or other salt solutions to
elevate the boiling point and hence the temperature of processing. However, use of
salts caused corrosion of vessels. In 1843, Winslow and Reymond Chaneliar Appert
used steam under pressure to get elevated temperatures and reducing the
processing time. In 1874, Scheiner, produced steam separately and used for heat
processing of cans. At present, the same process is being used in industry for heat
processing of canned foods.

In the beginning of 20th century, research was conducted to assess the heat
resistance of microorganisms, heat penetration into the cans and thermal process
calculation. In this field the contribution of Bigelow, Ball, Olson, Stevens and Stumbo
are noteworthy. Using the principles of thermal processing, High Temperature Short
Time (HTST) process and aseptic packaging have been developed.

2.4.Developments in fish canning industry

Year Development

1817 William Underwood packed lobster in glass containers in Boston.

1824 Salmon canning started at Aberdeen, Scotland.

1843 Mackerel canning

1844 Oyster canning

1864 Fish canning industries started on the West coast of the USA, Canada,
Alaska, Russia and Japan.

1867 Dunbars first canned shrimps in Gulf of Mexico.

1870 Canning of sardine became popular in Spain, Portugal and Morocco.

1917 Canning of tuna started in California.

1959 Export of canned shrimps from India.

1970s Several shrimp canning industries came up in India.

Unit 3 - Unit operations in canning

3.1.What is unit operation?

In food processing, the different steps involved in the preparation of processed foods
is termed as unit operation. The typical example for unit operations are washing,
dressing, filling, chilling freezing, retorting and quality assurance etc.,

3.1.1.Raw materials and other ingredients for canning

The purpose of canning is for long term preservation of food stuffs and hence raw
material is an important requirement of the industry. The prime quality of raw material
should be available for canning. The raw material used in canning can be classified
as follows.

Agricultural produce - Fruits e.g.: Apple, orange, pineapple, pears, peaches,

berries, cherry, mango, guava, papaya and jackfruit. Vegetables - Green Beans,
carrot, peas, corn, spinach, cabbage, potato, beetroot, bamboo shoots etc.
Animal produce - Land animal e.g. Pork, Beef, poultry meat, mutton. Aquatic animal
e.g. crustaceans, marine mammals including whales, fishes such as salmon, tuna,
mackerel, sardine, herring, pilchard, pikes, seer, pomfret etc and shellfishes such as
crabs, lobsters, shrimps, cuttlefish, clams and green mussels.
Others - processed foods such as condensed milk, soups, baby food and milk
powder.

3.1.2.Desirable characteristics of marine products for canning

The fish should be in fresh condition and should have not reached autolysis
stage.
Fish with high dressing yield is preferred for canning.
The fish meat should be firm enough to withstand the normal heat
processing during canning. The fish meat should not disintegrate after
canning.
The colour of the meat should be light or white. Fish meat with dark
pigments will discolor the final product.

3.1.3.Portions of fish used for canning

Generally small pelagic fishes like mackerel, sardine and anchovies are canned with
skin and bones; hence the skin should have lustrous shining appearance.
Meat chunks of large fishes like tuna, seer fish and catfish are canned.
Only the edible portions of shrimps, clams, oysters, mussels and crabs are used for
canning.
3.1.4.Ingredients for canning
Other than raw material, the important ingredients used in canning of fish are,
Salt
Oil
Additives like spices (other ingredients)
The quality of ingredients used for canning of fish will have effect on the final quality
of the product.

3.1.4.1.Salt
Salt is used in the preparation of brine and the concentration of salt used may vary
from 6-8% to saturated salt solution. Brine is used for dip treatment to dressed fish
prior to canning, blanching of peeled and deveined prawns (6 to 8% boiling brine)
and as filling medium (1-3%) salt in fish cans. The brining improves the texture of the
fish.

The impurities in salt such as chlorides and sulphates of magnesium will lead to bitter
taste of the product. If the above mentioned magnesium salts are present in more
than 0.1% in canned fish, it results in the formation of struvite crystals. Struvite
crystals are glass like structures and are undesirable in canned products.

Quality of salt used for canning

The salt used in canning should be pure and should not contain more of
soluble and insoluble impurities. The soluble impurities should not be more
than 1.5% and insoluble impurities should not be more than 0.5% when it is
used for can filling.
The counts of halophilic bacteria and pathogenic bacterial spores in salts
should be low.
The salt should have minimum of 98% sodium chloride content, should be of
small crystal size for easy dissolution. Some table salts are added with
Magnesium carbonate and Calcium carbonate to maintain free flow
characteristics and hence such salts have to be avoided.

3.1.4.2.Vegetable oils
For canning different types of fish, vegetable oil is used as filling medium. Vegetable
oil is also used in preparation of filling medium for canning. Refined cottonseed oil,
groundnut oil, sunflower oil and soybean oil are primarily used.

Quality of oil used for canning,

Free from moisture content is suitable.
Specific gravity should be between 0.9-0.92.
The oil should have less of unsaturated (iodine value should be less) fatty
acids.

3.1.4.3.Other ingredients
In order to enhance taste and flavour of canned products spices such as chilli,
pepper, cardamom, cumin, ginger etc are used. These are available in dried form and
contain high load of bacteria and spores. Bacterial load can be reduced by cleaning
and roasting or by sanitisation using fumigants or by irradiation. Alternately,
oleoresins and essential oils of spices are used to avoid microbial contamination.

3.2.1.1.Preparation of raw material for canning

Preparation of raw materials for canning includes steps such as cleaning, washing,
sorting, dressing, trimming, size cutting, mixing, mincing, brining, blanching,
precooking, shucking, frying, smoking and grading.

If the frozen fish is used for canning, thawing is an important step. Thawing is a
process of converting solid ice to water in a frozen fish. Thawing is done either in air
or in running water till all ice of the fish melts.

If the fresh fish is used for canning it should be chilled immediately. It is important to
keep the fish in chilled condition during all pre-processing operations.

3.2.1.2.Washing
Washing of fish has to be done using adequate quantity of chilled water (either by
using ice or by refrigeration). Immediately after washing, the fish should be iced in
order to avoid microbial and enzymatic spoilage.

3.2.1.3.Dressing
Dressing is a process of removing head viscera, gills and fins and the rest including
skin and bones (considered as edible) go into cans. Sometimes, heads and small fins
are not removed. Some fishes have to be washed, dressed and cut to required size
depending on can dimension.

3.2.1.4.Brining
Brining is an operation where the dressed fish is dipped in saturated brine solution for
8-15 minutes depending on the thickness of dressed fish, brine temperature and
nature of fish. Brining removes blood, dirt, slime and other undesirable materials
attached to fish. Further brining helps in improving the texture of meat by removing
moisture.

3.2.1.5.Precooking
Precooking is done to remove excess moisture and fat from the fish. This can be
achieved by steaming, frying and blanching. By this method the fish becomes firm
and also the moisture content comes down. After precooking, fish meat looks bright
and more attractive. However, there will be some loss of taste and flavour
components.

Precooking by steaming is done in retort for 30-45 minutes which expels moisture
and fat and can be removed by draining.

Frying is done using refined vegetable oil at a temperature of 160 to 180oC for one to
three minutes. Frying results in reduction in moisture, firming of texture, reduction in
size and improvement in taste and flavour.

Blanching is one of the precooking methods where the fish/shrimp is dipped in boiling
brine containing 6-8% salt for 4-6 minutes. Use of citric acid in blanching of shrimp is
a normal practice to achieve better colouration and texture. Blanching results in
contraction and curling of shrimp, reduced moisture content, development of firm
texture and attractive colouring. Blanching of shrimp helps in controlling the net
weight of shrimp in the processed cans.

Live clams, green mussel, oysters and crab are washed, steam cooked for a few
minutes to open the shell and to collect the edible portion. It is essential to remove
blood from crab meat which otherwise results in blue discolouration.

In tuna, the precooking operation helps in easy separation of dark and light meat.
The dark meat is not packed in can as they are not appealing and normally goes for
pet food preparations.

3.2.2.1.Filling of cans
Placing a definite quantity of well prepared food into clean cans can be considered as
packing or filling. The amount of solid material packed into the can is referred as solid
pack. The quantity of solid packed depends on the size of the can. The liquid media
is filled either by measuring or by weighing. It is important that every can has to be
packed uniformly with respect to arrangement of fish inside the can. Both overfilling
and under filling of cans is not acceptable. Filling the cans beyond the acceptable
limits not only cause losses to the manufacturer but also creates several other
problems. Under filled cans may be rejected by the consumers and quality inspectors
as they are considered defective.

3.2.2.2.Methods of filling
Cans are filled with food by manual and mechanical means. Filling machines may be
automatic or semiautomatic type. Automatic machines dispense the food into cans
after weighing or measuring.

For foods with soft tissues such as fish, hand filling is better as it disintegrates in
machine filling due to friction or pressure. For some products such as crab meat, the
prepared meat is packed in an orderly manner, e.g., claw meat is arranged at the top
and bottom and middle layer is with body meat in the can. In the case of shrimp or
clam meat, machine filling is possible. For other marine products hand filling of fish is
done and the filling medium is dispensed using machines.

3.2.2.3.Precautions to be taken during filling

Labeling of the product should match the content of the can. The details
such as gross weight, net weight, type of fish, type of filling media, size of
pieces and nutritional weight, net weight of solids, number of pieces, size of
pieces, type of filling media and nutritional value should be mentioned on the
label of the can. The product when opened should match to the description
given on the label. Hence care and accuracy of filling is required.
Overfilling of solids or liquids should as it leads unsatisfactory thermal
processing or under processing or thermal process failure.
Inconsistency in the product with reference to appearance, color and
quantity should be avoided.
Care should be taken not to include undesirable and foreign materials such
as dirt, shell, pieces of legs, hair or housefly or other insect parts. Also when
solids without liquid medium are packed, air should not be entrapped at the
bottom of the can.
All the cans have to be packed uniformly with solids and liquids so that the
head space is also uniform.
The filling of the cans should be uniform for a particular type of canned fish.
This will ensure consumer appeal.

3.2.2.4.Problems caused by over filling of cans

Permanent distortion of can ends at end of retorting.
Produces flipper or springer in cans packed with acid products.
Loss of vacuum and less shelf life.
Slower heat penetration into the cans leading to under processing or
process failure.
Over packing causes problems during seaming.
Over packing causes economic loss.

3.2.2.4.1.Head space in cans

In any food can, food and the filling medium do not occupy the complete space
available inside the can. Some vacant space is available and this is known as head
space. It is measured after the lid is cut open. Gross head space is distance between
outer most point on the seam and the level of food inside the can. This includes
countersink and thickness of the tin plate. When the sum of countersink and tin plate
thickness is deducted, net head space is obtained.
Gross head space = Net head space + Countersink + tin plate thickness
Net head space= Gross head space - (Countersink + tin plate thickness)

As countersink and tin plate thickness are constants, it is customary for some
processors to measure only gross head space rather net head space.

In food cans, for small sized cans gross head space should not be more than 5 to 7.5
mm and for large cans not more than 16 mm, for medium size cans it is 10 mm.

3.2.2.4.1.1.Importance of maintaining the desired head space

Less than desired head space indicates over packing and results in all the
problems of over packing.
Head space accommodates hydrogen gas to a great extent and minimises
chances of bulging.
No head space means obstruction to heat penetration especially in
convection heating packs and lead to process failure.
Too much head space - leads to loss of consumer confidence.
More head space heads to more Oxygen in the can and leads to oxidative
changes in the product.
Non uniform head spaces in the cans leads to non uniform vacuum inside
cans.
3.2.3.1.Exhausting of filled cans
The importance of removal of air from the cans after filling the food was realized by
canning experts from the very beginning. Even in historical days of canning, it was
thought that the contact of air with food was responsible for the spoilage and if the air
was removed, food could be preserved for long time after heat processing.

Even the famous chemist Gay Lusac thought in the same way. However, if air is not
removed from the can while sealing, it would expand during heat processing and can
ends (lids) become permanently convex and it would be rejected thinking that the
food inside was spoilt. Also, due to high pressure inside the can, seam would get
loosened and entry of air and bacteria may take place and spoil the product. Hence,
it is essential to exhaust the can prior to sealing.

3.2.3.2.Definition for Exhausting

Exhausting is the method of removal of air and other gases from filled cans and its
contents to establish a condition, whereby, the finished canned product will finally
show a substantial degree of vacuum.

Exhausting of the can is done after it is filled with prepared materials and additives
prior to air tight sealing.

3.2.3.3.Vacuum inside the can and its measurement

In canning technology, vacuum inside a can is a relative term and it does not mean
the absolute vacuum. Moreover, it is impossible to remove air or vapors from food
cans completely. Hence vacuum inside a food can is incomplete vacuum. The
extent to which the pressure inside a food can has been reduced in comparison to
the atmospheric pressure is considered as vacuum inside the can. This relationship
is given by the following equation.

Vacuum inside the can (V) = Atmosphere Pressure (Pa) Pressure inside the can
(Pc)
V = Pa - Pc

From this formula, it is evident that can vacuum not only depends on the pressure
exerted by air, gases and vapours inside the can but also on the atmospheric
pressure. The units used in measurement of can vacuum is the same as the one that
is used in measurement of pressure. The units used are kg per centimetre square
(kg/cm2) or lb/inch2. The other commonly used units of pressure are in terms of
centimetres of mercury column. Suppose pressure in the head space of can is 50cm
and the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 76 cm, then vacuum inside the can is
76-50=26 cm at the sea level.
3.2.3.4.Methods available for measurement of can vacuum
By the use of piercing type vacuum gauge.
Flip vacuum testing equipment.
Light spot method of Shiger and Kimera.
By measuring Newtons rings formed by the curved lid and a diffraction
grating.
However, the most widely used method is by the use of piercing type vacuum gauge
which is similar to pressure gauge which is Bourdon tube which opens out or closes
down depending on the pressure and the extent of the movement shown by a needle
(as in clocks) over a dial calibrated either in kg/cm2 or lb(Pounds)/square inch or mm
of Hg to read the a vacuum directly. This is a destructive test and can has to be
discarded.

Flip vacuum test is another test to measure vacuum inside a can. In this method can
is placed inside a bell jar fitted with vacuum gauge and also to a vacuum pump. Air
inside the bell jar is gradually withdrawn till the can end (lid) suddenly flips out and at
that instant vacuum gauge reading in taken. However, vacuum gauge reading
includes not only the vacuum inside the can but also the resistance offered by the tin
plate resistance.
i.e., flip vacuum = can vacuum + tin plate resistance (Tr)

By using piercing vacuum gauge, can vacuum can be found out. The difference
between flip vacuum and can vacuum gives tin plate resistance and this can be used
for further tests on cans of same size made from the same tin plate as the resistance
depends on diameter of the can, tin plate thickness and other mechanical properties.
From all subsequent readings, the tin plate resistance (Tr) if deducted, gives real
vacuum in cans established as in piercing type vacuum gauge by flip vacuum test.

3.2.3.5.Air inside food cans

Air, gases and vapour from liquids of a food can exist in the head space which is
removed by exhausting. In solid foods covered with a liquid filling medium and when
the liquids do not cover the solids completely, air will be entrapped. Similarly when
liquids are filled air bubbles in the liquid foods, air attached to cans will be there in
filled and sealed cans. In fruits and vegetables there will be the substantial amount of
tissue gases. Also if the liquids are filled into cans without heating, there will be
substantial quantity of dissolved gases. If all the air, gases and vapour are not
removed from the can and sealed, these will accumulate in the head space during
heat processing and hence the vacuum inside the can will be less than what is
required. Hence, it is important to remove these gases and vapors by exhausting.

3.2.3.6.Purpose (or objectives) of exhausting

To make the completely processed can ends flat or concave in order to
indicate that the food inside is in good condition.
To ensure that the cans especially at the ends do not gets deformed or
dented during heat processing due to the development of high pressure.
To reduce the oxygen level inside the can for the following reasons
Low oxygen level inside the cans minimizes can corrosion inside and hence
food will be preserved for a long time.
Minimizes fat oxidation and subsequent spoilage of food.
To retain nutritive value by prevention of nutrient destruction
(Vitamin C).
To prevent the germination of aerobic spore of bacteria and growth
of aerobic bacteria.
To accommodate hydrogen produced by acid foods.

3.2.3.7.Methods of Exhausting

Heat exhausting or thermal exhausting.

Mechanical exhausting by vacuum seaming.
Steam injection method.

3.2.3.7.1. Heat /thermal exhausting

Heat expands solids, liquids and gases. Gases expand to a maximum extent due to
heat. As the can and its contents are heated, the solids, liquids and more importantly
gases expand and gases are expelled from the head space. At this stage if the can is
seamed and then cooled, these materials will contract and create vacuum. Thermal
exhausting can be done is two ways.

Heating the food before filling: Heated food is filled into cans and immediately
sealed. This is also known as hot fill method adapted for jams, jellies, marmalades
and fruit pulps.

Heating the food before sealing: The can filled with food and the filling medium and
then passed through exhaust boxes. In the exhaust box, the can and into contents
are heated by steam for a predetermined length of time. As soon as the cans come
out of the exhaust boxes, they are immediately sealed.
The time duration of thermal exhausting depends on the can size, quantity of food
can contains and the nature of food. However, vacuum developed inside the can by
thermal exhaust method depends on
 Temperature of the can and its contents.
Head space in the can.
It has been found that by covering the cans by the lid, better exhaust can be
obtained. However, there is a possibility of lids dropping off the cans. Some canners
loosely join the lids to the body and the method is known as clinching. Clinching is
done by using the seamer having only first operation roller or it is similar to this
operation of the seamer. There are several advantages of clinching which may be
listed as follows.
Results in better vacuum and hence increase in shelf life of the product.
Prevents displacement of lid and spillage of contents.
Prevents scalding or scorching of food on the top surface.
Cans retain round shape and hence the double seaming takes place without
any problem.

3.2.3.7.2.1.Advantages
Vacuum is obtained easily, efficiently and quickly.
High speed of operation 150-200 cans/min.
Less space requirement (saves the space required for exhaust box).
Good hygiene and sanitation.
Removes air, gases and vapours only from the head space and not from
tissues of food.
Delicate flavour, odour and texture of foods (fruits) are better retained.
It is a simple and modern method.

3.2.3.7.1.2.Disadvantages
More capital intensive (costly machines).
Not suitable for products which contain more entrapped gases in
cells/tissues.
Heated material may boil over leading to spillage and the liquids may be
sucked.
As the temperature of food is less at the beginning of the thermal process its
sterilization value will be less.

3.2.3.7.2. Mechanical Exhausting

This is a recent method based on seaming the cans in a vacuum chamber and
vacuum is created in the chamber by using vacuum pumps. In this method can filled
with foods enters chamber which is then closed and from which air inside is
mechanically withdrawn and immediately the can is sealed. Vacuum is created over
the head space of the can in the vacuum chamber immediately the can is seamed.
There are some advantages and disadvantages in the use of mechanical exhausting
(vacuum seamer).
3.2.3.7.3. Steam injection method of exhausting
In this method steam is injected into the head space just prior to seaming. When the
seamed can is cooled, steam condenses into water producing vacuum. The use of
this method is limited to some canned fish, e.g. Salmon. This method is being used
for exhausting retort pouches.

3.2.3.7.3.1.Advantages of steam injection method

Less space requirement compared to exhaust box.
Less steam requirement compared to exhaust box.
Moderate cost compared to other methods.
Damage to food product due to heat is less as food is not hated.
Better hygiene and sanitation.
Vacuum created is quite high compared to thermal exhaust.

3.2.3.7.3.2.Ideal vacuum inside the can

Most people agree that there should be vacuum inside a food can. However there is
a lot of disagreement regarding the exact quantum of vacuum. According to B.I.
Standards, for fish packed in round tall cans, vacuum should be 10cm. However, for
fruit cans it should be more than this. In other countries, it is 12-15 for small cans
and for large cans it is 9-12. For sardine packed in quarter dingley cans it can be
even less (just negative pressure is sufficient). However, if the fish canners try to
maintain 25 to 30 m of Hg pressure inside the cans, there will not be any fear of
rejection of the product by any country.

3.2.4.Can closing or seaming of cans

It is essential to close the cans without inclusion of air as soon as exhausting is
completed. The importance of this operation was realised by Nicholas Appert.
According to him, the success of canning depends on how well the can was closed.
Even very minute hole in the can or lid or the seam can spoil the food which was
carefully prepared due to the entry of air and microorganisms. If the entry of air or
microorganisms is not prevented, all the care and precautions taken during pre-
processing and other operations go waste. Even thermal processing which will be
done at a later stage will be a futile exercise.

2. Backward extension of seam or cut over of cover

When cover is pressed and rolled part of the cover is push above the chuck, cut over
happens. If cut over takes place it may be difficult to remove cans from the seamer.
Due to this incomplete seam or the seam may get cut.

The reason for this are

Wear and tear of chuck.
Fixing of chuck at a lower level than required in the seamer.
More solder on the side seam.
More force exerted by the seaming rollers.
 Looseness between chuck and the lid/cover.

3. Lips in the seam

Part of the steel plate comes out of the completed double seam which appears like
lips.

The reasons for this defect are,

Second seaming roller is more lightly fixed.
Pressure by base plate is more.
Loosely fitted first operation roller.
Completely worn out roller.

4. Wrinkle in the double seam

Wrinkled seam is due to worn out rollers.

5. Lines on the seam

In such seams have lines on the outer surface of the seam. This is due to worn out
second operation roller or distortion.

6. Cut seam
Seam is cut from top to bottom. This is due to,
Excessive base plate pressure.
Tightly fixed second operation roller.
Excessive solder on the side seam.
Chuck is fixed at a lower level than the desired level.

3.2.4.1.Purpose of can closing /seaming

To prevent loss of vacuum produced during exhausting.
To create a barrier between the food inside the can and outside atmosphere
in order to prevent contamination of food.
To prevent loss of moisture from the food in the form of liquid or vapour
packed inside the can.
To prevent chemical changes that takes place in food when exposed to
atmosphere/air.
In conventional canning procedure can closing is done after exhausting but before
thermal processing. If the cans are properly closed, thermal processed food in the
can in which microorganisms are destroyed will not get recontaminated. In modern
methods, such as aseptic canning it may be different. Several containers were being
used in the canning. For example, bottle and closure, complete soldered cans, hole
and cap/lid cans etc. Later single seaming and finally double seaming of cans were
followed. At present, only double seaming is followed and hence the further
discussion on double seamers.
3.2.4.2.Double seamers
In the joining of metal lid to the can body, curved edge of the lid is joined to edge of
the body protruding out (flange) is bent and pressed with help of a machine (seamer)
in two successive operations so that an air tight joint (seam) is formed. The efficiency
and quality of the seam depends on the care taken during adjustment of various
parts of can seamer, mechanical perfection of two interlocking hooks (body and
cover) and the presence of thin lining of rubber compound. Several types of double
seamers have been developed to form a seam, starting from hand operated to semi-
automatic to completely automatic vacuum seamers are in use. Some seamers are
slow speed whereas others seam several hundred cans per minute. Even though,
there are differences in design and fabrication of various seamers, the essential parts
of any seamer are as follows.
Chuck
Base plate
First operation roller
Second operation roller

3.2.4.2.1.Inner construction/structure of completed a double seam

As the can body sheet of metal is bent once it has two folds and the sheet of the lid is
bent twice hence it has three folds, all together there are 5 layers of sheet of the
metal. In some cans sheet of the metal of the body over laps and 5 layer of sheet of
the metal. In some cans sheet of the metal overlaps and in this region of the body
there will be two layer of sheets and when this region is bent inside a double seam,
there will be 4 layers of the body sheet and hence only in the region of the can there
will be seven layers of the sheet. Even if the seam is very tight, there will be some
gaps between the sheets of metal. There will be gap at the end of cover hook and
body hook. Even though it is impossible to eliminate these gaps, it should not be too
much and as the rubber compound fills these gaps, the seam will be air tight. The
extent of overlaps between body hook and cover hook serves as a good index of
quality of a seam. If the seam is loose overlap will be less and if it is tight the overlap
will be more. Similarly the thickness of the seam also varies.

3.2.4.2.2.Seam dimensions (dimensions of seam and its parts)

Dimensions of properly formed seam and its parts should be within certain limits.
Some of the important dimensions are
Seam length (width) (W)
Seam thickness (T)
Counter sink (CS)
Body hook (BH)
Cover hooks (CH)

3.2.4.2.3.Factors affecting quality of double seam

Shape of the cover/lid and its dimensions
 Shape and the dimensions of body flange; these factors depend on empty
can manufacturer.
Depends on the chuck and the shape of the rollers and their dimensions.
Seamer adjustment
These depend on manufactures of the machine and the seamer operator of the
canning plant. During the use of the seamer, the dimension for the chuck and the
rollers change due to wear and tear, if they are found defective, they have to be
replaced. This is completely dependent as the food canners control and it is very
essential to check the seamer and the seam formed from it to the processor's
satification at the beginning of the canning process and sometimes it may be
necessary to inspect the seamer and the seam several times in a day.

3.2.4.2.4.Testing of quality of a double seam

Equipments required
Seam scale.
Seam screw gauge.
Seam cutting saw.
Magnifying glass.
Seam projector.

3.2.4.2.5.Steps involved in Examination of double seam

External Examination of double seam : Seam is checked all round the can to see
whether seen characteristics are different from a good seam. The defects noted
down.

Measurement of external dimensions : Seam thickness counter sink and seam

length using screw gauge.
Part of the Seam Gauge to measure seam thickness and seam length

Examination of inner parts of a seam : After cutting the seam of 2 mm width, seam
is visually examine or by using a magnifying glass. If the gaps are more or if the
hooks are too small or if the overlap is less, on a note has to be made.
Measurement of inner dimensions of seam parts : The seam is separated into
body hook and cover hook and their dimension are measured. Overlap% is
calculated and whether these are within the limits for a particular can has to be
checked.

In addition, the lid is cut all-round and cover portion of the seam is removed in the
form of bangle. The inner portion of this bangle is the cover hook and examined for
minute wrinkles. If there is no wrinkle there it is considered that the seam is tight.
Downward wrinkles at the spreading downward from the upper edge to the lower
edge indicates loose seam. These wrinkles should not cover more than a quarter of
its length and if it is more than the seam is not safe. However, the safety of seam
cannot be judged only based on wrinkles. In small cans as the curvature is more,
there is a possibility of formation of more wrinkles than large sized cans.

3.2.4.3.Other seam testing methods

Pressure testing-not very efficient
Vacuum testing-slightly better
Bio test- Detects invisible defects (sample can be and tested and not all
cans).

3.2.4.4.Seam defects
1. False seam
False seam is formed without interlocking of body and cover hooks. This is a gross
defect and cans definitely leak.

3.2.5. Heat processing or retorting of cans

Several developments have taken place after Nicholas Appert developed canning
procedure especially with respect to techniques of heat processing and the
equipments used. The heating medium used is either hot water or steam and use of
tools such as pressure gauges, thermometers, recording equipments etc, it is
possible to subject the closed cans to precise and accurate heat process.

3.2.5.1.Horizontal and Vertical retorting

In fish canning industry batch type still retorts are used. Prior to the start of heat
processing it is important to wash the retort and check whether the thermometer and
pressure gauge work properly. Steam should not leak through the gasket fixed to the
retort at the door/closure of the retort. If the gasket is worn out, it has to be replaced.
While stacking the cans in retorting baskets or carts, jumble stacking in better as the
steam spreads all round the cans. Jumble stacking reduces the retort capacity but
cans receive good heat process. After loading, the retort has be closed tightly, and
then the steam valve of the retort has to be opened. It is important to remove all the
air inside the retort by venting prior to the start of heat processing. When all the air is
removed, the pressure indicated by the retort is only due to steam and each pressure
unit (due to saturated steam) indicates a particular temperature. After the retort
attains required pressure and time counting is started. The time taken by the retort to
attain the desired temperature and pressure (after the opening of steam value) is
known as come up time. This time depends on the size of the retort, design, speed
with which steam enters the retort, number of cans stacked in the retort etc., When
large size cold cans are heat processed with very quick come up time, because of
sudden increase in pressure, the cans may get dented and dents may be permanent.
The end of retort come up may be considered as the beginning of the heat process.
The process time is pre-determined for each food and for each can size. Throughout
the heat process duration, the temperature and pressure inside the retort has to be
closely monitored. It is important to note that if the temperature of the retort drops for
certain durations of time, there will be loss of heat process which cannot be made up
by increasing the duration of the process because the killing effect of lower
temperature is much less at lower temperature.

As soon as the process time is completed, steam valve is close and all the vents are
opened and all the steam is let out. It is not good to reduce the pressure suddenly
because the pressure inside the can will be more than the outside pressure and can
ends will protrude outwards and take convex shape, double seam gets loosened and
deformed. Such cans are likely to get contaminated with bacteria from cooling water.
The retort should be opened only after the pressure is reduced to O and
immediately the cans have to be cooled.

3.2.5.2.Precautions to be taken during heat processing

Check and recalibrate the instrument attached to the retort.
Jumble stack the cans so that steam easily circulate around the cans.
Slowly and steadily bring up the retort to processing temperature/pressure.
Prevent leakage of steam through the gasket of door.
Vent the retort completely. There should not be any air inside the retort
Maintain the temperature and pressure uniformly without fluctuations
throughout the heat process.
At the end of process, let out the steam steadily and not suddenly till all the
steam escapes and pressure drops to O.
Immediately cool the cans in good quality running water.

3.2.5.3.Important objectives of retorting

Consumer safety (by destroying pathogens and food poisoning bacteria)
Prevent spoilage by destroying spoilage causing organisms.
Cooking of food (the bone, fins, scale must become soft)
Retain nutrients as much as possible.

3.2.5.4.Factors which influence thermal process for cans

The thermal process for cans depend on the following.
 Small can require shorter process than the one given for larger cans for the
same product.
Solid food in the form of smaller piece surrounded by low viscosity liquid
medium requires shorter process.
The process required in agitation type retorts or cookers require shorter
process compared to still retorts or cookers.
Acid foods such as fruits and their products require lower temperature and
shorter process.

3.2.5.5.Continuous type retorts

These are similar to the equipments used for pasteurization of acid foods. In these
equipments the conveyors of cans do not pass through hot water tanks instead low
acid food cans pass through steam under pressure in box like structure. There are
valves to control the entry and exit of cans. The process time is controlled by the
speed of the conveyor.

3.2.5.5.1.Important advantages of continuous retorts/ sterilizers

After can closing, the can enters the sterilizer immediately whereas in batch
type the first can has to wait till the basket is full. No delay in between can
closing and sterilization.
The cans are subjected to heat processing temperature as soon as it enters
and till it leaves. In retorts, one has to wait till the come up time ends.

3.2.5.5.1.1.Hydrostatic sterilizer
In this pressure of water Colum is used. There are 3 inter connected towers of about
40 high as shown in the figure. The conveyor belt carrying the can enters from the
top of one of the towers and comes down and enters the middle tower where there is
steam under pressure. The difference in levels of water between the side and middle
tower determines the steam pressure or temperature. After the cans receive the
required heat process it enters the third tower where it gets partially cooled, then it
gets cooled by air spray of water and finally in running cold water.

The important advantage of this sterilizer is that there is no sudden variation in

pressure while the can enter and exit from it. The defects such as panelling or
denting or loose seam formation are not there.

3.2.6.Can cooling, labelling and storage

It is important to cool the thermally processed cans before storage. In a way cooling
is considered on part of heat processing as the can center temperature of 200 oF
(93.3oC) in low acid foods and 140oF (60oC) in acid food still has the killing effect on
microorganism even while cooling. However, there should not be any delay in cooling
process, as it leads several bad effects. Hence it is very important to cool the cans as
quickly as possible.
3.2.6.1.Defects arising due to improper cooling
Cold spot during heat process acts as a hot spot during cooling and hence
leads to over processing in this area resulting in loss of nutritional and sensory
quality, also undesirable chemical changes take place.
Optimum temperature is provided for the thermophiles to grow leading to
thermophilic spoilage such as flat sour spoilage.
Large struvite crystals are formed due to slow cooling. Small crystals are not
noticed, but large crystals are noticed and they are objectionable. This is a
problem in crab meat and some variety of tuna.
Results in stack burning due to slow and insufficient cooling.
More internal corrosion problems ultimately leading to holes in the tin plate,
more hydrogen gas production and loss of vacuum.

3.2.6.2.Mediums used for can cooling and the limits

Can cooling in air or current of air is suitable only in temperate countries as it is a
slow process. The most commonly used medium is running water but requires more
quantity of water. The rate of cooling can be increased by addition of ice. Latent heat
of fusion if ice helps in this regard. Use of chilled water may lead to over cooling
which results in sweating of the cans on the outer surface. This will lead to outer can
corrosion. It is sufficient to cool the cans to room temperature or 1-2oC above the
room temperature. Higher temperature inside the can leads to stack burning during
storage when stored very closely.

3.2.6.3.Methods of Cooling
Cooling inside the retort (retort capacity gets reduced)
Cooling inside the retort requires water for cooling after closure of steam valve. The
water valve is opened and it sprayed on to the cans to cool them. Air cooling inside
the retort is not possible. Care should be taken to avoid physical damages due
pressure of water inside.

Cooling outside
Cooling the cans outside the retort is a slow process. Cooling in water tanks is a
good method and widely adopted. Cans may also be rolled down in a canal to cool.
Addition of ice increases the efficiency of cooling but the cost is more. In tank method
of cooling, care has to be taken to see that the temperature of water does not
increase and also cleanliness, hygiene and sanitary conditions are maintained.

3.2.6.4.Quality of water in can cooling

Potable (drinking) quality water is used in can cooling i.e. the total plate count (TPC)
should not be more than 100 cfu / (ml) g. Coli forms not more than 1 / g or ml and
should be free of pathogens. Often cooling water is added with 4-8 ppm of free
chlorine Higher Chlorine levels leads to outer can corrosion. If the can cooling water
is recycled it has to cooled filtered and chlorinated.
3.2.6.5.Labelling
After cooling and drying, the labels should be put on the cans. The labels should
display all the information such as name of the product, additives added, net weight
and drained weight of contents, date of manufacture, batch number, licence no,
manufactures address etc., All the principles of labelling should be adhered to the
adhesive, non corrosive and non toxic and the label should be in accordance with
food laws and other laws.

In addition can ends are coded by using an embossing machine. Coding should not
damage the lacquer or tin coatings so that corrosion is prevented.

3.2.6.6.Storage of cans
The labeled cans are stored in cool and dry place. The storage should be well
ventilated and temperature fluctuations should be minimum. There should not be any
corrosive fumes and gases entering the storage room. Normally cans are stored in
cases and cases with cans should be kept on wooden platforms. The stored cans
should not be exposed to direct sunlight.
Unit 4 - Thermal process for canned foods

4.1.Thermal Processing
The thermal processing of can is a process of exposing the properly sealed cans to a
combination of time and temperature to kill all the pathogenic and spoilage
microorganisms inside the can. The time and temperature combination required for a
can depends on the size of the can, heat penetration rate, and the type of pathogenic
and spoilage microorganisms expected in the particular food.The type of
contaminating microorganism capable of growing inside the can depends on the pH
of the food that is canned. Low pH food may arrest the growth of even the food
poisoning bacteria like Clostridium boltulinum and may not need severe thermal
processing.

4.2.Classification of acidity foods

Depending on the pH of foods, they are classified as follows.

Acid present in medium and acid foods, prevent the growth of Clostridium
botulinum hence these foods are not associated with botulism.

4.3.Severity of thermal process

Microorganisms are more heat sensitive in the presence of acids. Even the spores of
bacteria cannot germinate in the presence of acids. For instance, any bacteria, yeast
or mould found in orange or pineapple juice will be killed by mild heating at 100 oC or
less. This type of heat treatment is known as Pasteurization. On the other hand, the
bacteria in low acid foods relatively more heat resistant. Even the spores may
germinate in low acid foods. Hence, more severe heat treatment required to destroy
spores i. e. at a temperature above 110oC. Such a process in canning is known as
Sterilization. The terms pasteurization and sterilization are used to distinguish the
thermal processes in terms of their severity and their effects on contaminating
microflora.

4.3.1.Pasteurization
This is a form of heat treatment, usually below 100oC, given to foods that do not
support the growth of heat resistant microorganisms. The process in sufficient to kill
all pathogens and most vegetative cells but the spores will survive.

4.3.2.Sterilization
A severe heat treatment given to foods capable of supporting growth of heat resistant
microorganisms, i.e., most low acid foods support highly heat resistant
microorganisms. The process is designed to destroy virtually all microorganisms
regardless of their heat resistance. Any survivor of a sterilization process will be
spores incapable of reproductions under normal storage conditions.

4.4.Relationship between acidity and severity of the process

This is best illustrated by the following tables.
Acidity of Food and Example Severity of thermal process

High - Citrous fruits Low - 5 Min at 80OC

pH 3.7 or less - Pineapple The process is known as pasteurization

Medium - Pear, tomato Medium - 15 min at 100OC

pH 3.7 4.5 - Apple

Low - Meat ; fish High 60 min 121.1OC

pH 4.5 or more - Corn, green vegetables The process is known as sterilization.

To make canned foods sterile may not be necessary sometimes because food may
lose all its sensory qualities. In such cases, rather than making the canned foods
absolutely sterile, processor aims at commercial sterility which is aimed at killing the
most heat resistant pathogenic and spoilage bacteria at that particular pH of food.
The essential condition necessary for commercial sterility is that there be no health
risks arising from microorganisms that survived the thermal process which
means Clostridium botulinum (the most severe food poisoning bacterium), other
relatively less heat resistant pathogenic organisms and spoilage bacteria are killed.
The survival of other heat resistant non pathogenic bacteria may be may not affect
the food.

4.5.Heat Resistance of Microorganisms

Bacteria or its spores subjected to moist heat at lethal temperatures show
exponential decrease in their numbers i.e. they exhibit logarithmic order of death. The
higher the temperature of sterilization, the greater is the rate of thermal destruction.
For an example the killing of bacteria by exposing them for 10 minutes at 121.1 oC is
approximately equivalent to 100 minutes at 101oC.

4.5.1.Measures of Heat resistance of Microorganisms

The earliest method is thermal death point which is the lowest temperature beyond
which when heated, the organism ceases to grow or multiply. This found limited use
in thermal process calculations because killing of bacteria is dependent on time,
temperature and number of bacteria. Later the concept of Thermal Death
Time(TDT) was introduced. TDT is defined as the minimum time in minutes required
to destroy a given bacterial population at a specified lethal temperature.

4.5.2.Decimal reduction time

Another method of estimating the heat resistance of a microorganism is by estimation
of its decimal reduction time or the D value which is the time required in minutes to
destroy 90% of a given population of bacteria or its spores at a specified
temperature. Death of vegetative cells or its spores occur exponentially when heated
at specified temperature. The reduction in number and the D value are illustrated by
the following curves.
The above curve follows an exponential pattern. For routine calculations, the above
curve is difficult to work with. Hence, log of surviving number of cells is taken and
plotted against time of heating which the following straight line curve.

The equation of this graph is t= (log a log b) x D

a= Initial number of survivor

b= number of survivor at the end of heating for t minutes

D is the D value

In the above example a=104 spore i.e., log a=4, log b = 3 duration of heating t=12.5-
7.5 min = 5 min. therefore D value is 5=(4-3)xD, i.e. D = 5 minutes.

The curve in figure 2 is also known as logarithmic survivor curve or simply Survivor
curve or Death rate curve

The D value of an organism is temperature dependent; the higher the temperature,

the lower is the D value. The value is independent on the initial number of bacteria
present. Usually D value is written with a subscript which denotes the temperature to
which D value is estimated e.g. D250 denotes death rate was measured at 250oF.

D Value (Decimal reduction time at a particular temperature) of organism is defined

as time in minutes require to bring down the microbial population to 1/10th of its
original number when heated at a particular temperature.

4.5.3.Decimal reduction times (D values) of bacteria

Organism D Value (minutes at 121.1oC)

Bacillus stearothermophilus 4.0 - 5.0

Clostridium
3.0 - 4.0
thermosaccharolyticum

Cl. nigrificans 2.0 - 3.0

Cl. botulinum (Type A&B) 0.1 - 0.2

Cl. sporogenes (P.A.3679) 0.1 -1.5

Bacillus coagulans 0.01 - 0.07

4.6.Time temperature relationship in bacterial destruction and thermal death

time of bacteria
It has been found that the higher the lethal temperature of heating, the shorter is the
time required to destroy any given number of bacteria or spores. D value gives a
good representation of the proportion of number of cells killed in unit time during
heating process but the effect of change in temperature of heating cannot
ascertained. Therefore, to obtain the combined effect of time and temperature on
destruction of bacteria/spore, thermal destruction curve or often referred as thermal
death time curve is required.
4.6.1.Thermal Death Time (TDT)
It is defined as number of minutes of heating required to destroy a specified number
of organisms at a given temperature. The thermal death time follows a logarithimic
relationship with the temperature of heating. This means as we increase or decrease
the temperature of heating, the thermal death time for a bacteria will increase or
decrease in a logarithimic scale. Therefore if we plot the TDT values on a log scale of
a semilog paper (The graph paper which has vertical grids on log scale and
horizontal grids on linear scale), and the temperature of heating on linear scale, we
would get a straight line. When TDT plotted on the log scale and temperature of
heating on linear scale, a straight line of best fit is known as thermal destruction
curve or thermal death time (TDT) curve. The TDT curve constructed in this manner
is called end point curve. This curve can be used for finding out the thermal death
time for a fixed number of organisms at an unknown temperature. TDT values
obtained in this manner are valid only for the number and type of organisms used in
that particular experiment.TDT curves for the same organism present at higher
density would be different. Instead of using semilog paper, TDT curve can also be
plotted on a linear graph paper by taking log of the TDT values on Y axis and
heating temperature on X axis. While D values represent killing of 90% of a
population and TDT represent destruction of 100% of the population they are always
proportional.

4.6.2.Thermal destruction/ thermal death time (TDT) curve on a semilog paper

The slope of a TDT curve is indicative of the thermal tolerance of a bacteria. The
steeper a TDT curve is, the faster the destruction of the bacteria indicating lower
tolerance. Thermal tolerance can be compared by Z values. Z value is the number of
degrees (F or C) required for the TDT curve to pass through one log cycle. The
effect of temperature on destruction of cells decreases as the Z value increases.
Instead of TDT, if D values are plotted on the log scale against temperature on the
linear scale as in thermal destruction curve, a straight line curve parallel to TDT curve
is obtained. This curve is known as Phantom TDT curve and has the same slope as
TDT curve.

4.6.2.1.F. value of the organism

It is the number of minutes required for the specified number of bacteria to get
destroyed at a given temperature (The definition is same as for TDT). F value is often
written subscript and superscript e.g. F14212 subscript denotes reference
temperature and superscript denotes Z value. For different organisms F values are
different depending on how quickly they get destroyed. F value, in a way indicate the
time and temperature combination.

4.6.2.2.FO Value
It is the number of minutes required to destroy a specified number of organisms at
250oF when Z =18.

F18250 =Fo or F10121.1 =Fo. Z value of 18oF or 10Co is assumed for Clostridium
botulinum when TDT determinations have not been made for the product under
consideration. Fo value is an unit of sterilization.

Fo value of 1 minute means, the sterilizing effect on the product which has been
instantaneously heated to 121.1oC and held for 1 min and instantaneously cooled. In
other words, sum of all lethal effects of all time temperature combinations are
converted the lethal effect at 121.1oC, which equivalent 1 minute.

Fo value of Clostridium botulinum is 2.4 minutes. If the sterilizing value of thermal

process in terms of Fo value is 2.4 min, it means the most feared organism i.e. Cl.
botulinum is destroyed This thermal process is known as minimum botulinum cook
which is essential for a low acid food can. While minimum botulinum cook indicates
safety from botulinum food poisoning, in most cases, minimum, it is not sufficient to
destroy spoilage organisms especially in low acid foods. A much higher process say
Fo = 5 to 6 is required for fish cans to destroy the spoilage organisms. In canned
corn, a highly heat resistant spoilage organism Bacillus stearothermophilus needs a
thermal process equivalent to Fo value of more than 10 to be destroyed.

4.7.Heat penetration in canned foods

The rate of heat penetration and the distribution of heat inside the can are other
important aspects of thermal processing. These aspects are based on physical
characteristics and completely independent of microbiological aspects. Neither the
cans can be instantaneously heated to lethal temperature nor be cooled
instantaneously. Food in the can passes through different temperatures at different
times of heating and cooling processes. In order to understand how much sterilization
the can has received, it is necessary to know how long the can has remained at each
temperature levels. In other words, a complete picture of heating and cooling pattern
is necessary for assessing the thermal process.
The distribution of heat within the can depends on how the heat is transferred. Food
cans may be classified in convection heating packs and conduction heating packs
depending on the type of heat transfer. Convection heating takes place when a liquid
is heated and the liquid transfers the heat from one point to another by movement of
liquid molecules within the can ie by convection. In case of conduction heating takes
place when heat distribution takes place through solid.

4.7.1.Cold spot
During heating a can of food in a retort, temperature varies from point to point. When
the cans are heated from outside, the portion of can contents nearer to the container
wall get heated first and the central portions later. Thus there will be a temperature
gradient in the canned food at any point time during heat processing. Therefore, a
point or a small space can be imagined in each can which gets heated last (final).
Such a point of maximum heat lag is known as cold spot and its position inside can
be determined experimentally. Since other portions of canned food gets more heat
treatment than the cold spot, it is safe to assume that if the cold spot is sterilized, the
whole can is sterilized.

It has been experimentally found that for conduction heating packs, the cold spot is at
the geometric centre of the pack and for convection heating packs, it is on the
geometric axis of the can at a distance of to 2 (depending on the can height) from
the bottom of the can.

4.7.2.Typical heating and cooling curves of convection and conduction heating

foods at the cold spot

4.7.3.Equipments for the determination of heat penetration

At present, properly insulated copper-constantat thermocouples are used to study
heat penetration. This type thermocouples are self compensated for the cold junction,
and are used for direct reading of the temperature. The thermocouple is fixed using
rubber gasket, a hallow bolt and nut as shown in the figure. A Nylon casing covers
the portion of thermocouple exposing the tip to the location where the temperature
needs to be recorded.
4.7.4.Method of determining heat penetration in the can
First the cold spot in the can is determined by fixing the thermocouple in 5-6 cans at
various points along the geometrical axis where the cold spot is likely to occur. Then
the cans are filled with required quantity of food (as packed in normal processing)
with thermo couple tips at different positions. The cans are seamed and heat
processed and the temperature is noted. The slowest heating rate indicates the cold
spot.
About 6-8 cans of same dimension are then taken, fixed with thermocouple tips at the
predetermined cold spot, filled with the product and then the intended process is
given by retorting. The retort and can temperature are recorded at the convenient
intervals of time ranging from to 1 min for normal products and at 2-5 mins for slow
heating products. Temperature and time data are collected as soon as the steam
valve of retort is opened and till the completion of process which includes heating
and cooling time. The data by the slowest heating thermocouple (and not the
average) is taken for further calculations. The data obtained are plotted on a linear
graph with temperature on vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis as shown
below. This data is used for calculation of heat process the product has received.
This is done by one of the two methods,
The general method of process calculation
Integrated method of process calculation
4.8.General method of process calculation
In general method of process calculation, it is suggested that if the time required to
render the food at the slowest heating region is safe, other regions of the can as well
as the whole container is rendered safe. In the general method, the temperature at
the cold spot is read at equal intervals of time starting from the time steam is allowed
in to the retort (steam on) till can cooling. The TDT of most significant organism in
that particular pack has to be determined at various temperatures throughout the
heating and cooling period. The lethal rate which equal 1/TDT is calculated and these
values are plotted against corresponding times to get what is known as lethal rate
curve. Total lethality of the process is computed by area under the lethal rate curve.

Lethality of 1 means complete destruction of all spores in the can.

Lethality of 1 square in the graph sheet = 0.0025X5 = 0.0125
Suppose total area under the curve is 71.35 square cm, the total lethality = 0.0125 X
71.35 = 0.089

Total lethality of the process of 0.089 is much less than what is required for complete
destruction of spores. Hence there is a necessity to increase the retorting time.

4.8.1.Improved general method of process calculation (Calculation of Fo value)

Since general method is laborious and not well suited for routine calculations, Shultz
and Olson (1940) introduced further modifications based on balls concept of
hypothetical microorganism which has a Z value of 18Fo or 10Co (as for Cl.
botulinum) and it passes through the point of 1 minute at 250oF. He also gave the
equation to calculate lethal rate i.e., Lethal rate = 1/Antilog (250-T/Z) in the case oF is
used and when measurements in oC is used it is L.R = 1/Antilog (121.1-T/Z)
Because of this equation, lethal rate can be calculated for all other temperature. To
illustrate significant contribution of Ball described above, it is seen from the TDT
curve of Cl. botulinum, TDT (F value) is 2.45 min at 121.1oC while at 113oC it is 10
min. Therefore, 1 minute at 113C is equivalent to TDT of 0.245 min (F value) at
121.1oC. By improved general method, both Fo value of the process as well as
process time required can be calculated.

4.8.2.Lethality of heat during heating and cooling

The lethal capacity of the heat process during sterilization process is converted to
that at 121.1oC at which temperature the lethal rate of hypothetical
microorganisms(HMO) is unity (1). The lethal rate at any other temperature can be
determined by using the TDT graph (Fig.1) of HMO or by using the equation given by
Ball.
The above graph shows that relative to lethal rate of unity at 121.1 oC those at 91.1,
101.1, 111.1, 131.1, 141.1 and 151.1 are 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 10.0, 100 and 1000
respectively.
The lethal value of thermal process is determined by integrating the lethal rates over
the entire heating and cooling curve as measured at the centre of the container. The
lethal value of one unit is the sterilizing effect achieved by holding the product at
121.1oC for 1 minute. Mathematically it is expressed as F = LR at 121.1 x 1 =1 min
The lethal values of all time temperature combinations throughout the process can be
computed and their sum gives the total lethal value of the process. It follows that a
process with an F value =7 is equivalent to sterilizing effect of heating the contents of
the can instantly to 121.1oC maintaining the temperature for 7 min and then instantly
cooled. While this cannot be done in practice, the lethal effect of the process has
been expressed as though it is possible.

4.8.3.Calculation of Fo Value
To be assured of giving commercial sterility to a product, Fo value at the slowest
heating point has to be obtained by heat penetration study as explained in general
method. Temperature at the cold point is measured at equal intervals of time
throughout the retort come up Period till the retort reaches sterilization temperature),
heating and cooling period. From the table or graph or by calculation using the
formula for lethal rate, lethal rate is calculated at each temperature during the heat
process. The graph is plotted by taking lethal rate of X axis and time on Y axis. The
lethal value of 1 unit (X x Y) square area of the plot of the graph is then calculated.
Suppose the lethal rate on Y axis for 1 cm =0.0125 and 1 cm on X axis is 10 min then
the lethal value of 1 unit of the plot = 0.0125X10=0.125 measure the total number of
squares present under the curve, The total number of square under the curve is say
50 sq. cm, then the lethal value of the process is 0.125X50=6.25. The Fo value of
6.25 minutes.
Suppose F value of the process required to destroy a particular organism is 8, the
process time is increased on the original heat penetration curve and parallel cooling
curve is drawn in such a way that the area under the curve is increased to get
Fo value of 8. The Fo value required to achieve complete destruction of Clostridium
bolulium is 2.5 and the heat process required is known on botulinum cook which is
mandatory for all low acid canned foods. Many a time, this heat process is not
sufficient to prevent spoilage and hence heat process with Fo value between 6-8 may
be required.

4.9.High Temperature Short Time (HTST) Processing

It has been observed that when the temperature of the cold spot reaches sterilization
temperature, product near the periphery of the can would have highly over processed
especially when the food is processed in a large sized cans. In modern canning
methods, retention of sensory and nutritional quality is as important as destruction of
microorganisms. To achieve this objective, it is important to minimise the thermal
process time by raising the processing temperature. Fish cans which are generally
processed to achieve an Fo value of 4 to 6 to achieve commercial sterility which
translates to about 60 to 80 minutes at 115oC for normal sized cans. If the same
thermal process is to be achieved at 100oC, the process time required will be several
hours. By the time the fish in the can would have lost all its sensory quality and
consumer acceptability. Hence the fish cans are processed at say 115 to 120oC. If
the same principle is extrapolated and processing temperature is raised to say 140 to
150oC, the processing temperature can be minimised to a few seconds to a few
minutes. Such processing methods can be called as High Temperature Short-Time
processing. Ball and Olson (1957) have defined HTST process as sterilization by
heat for times ranging from a few seconds to 6 minutes. This definition is applicable
in case of certain in-can methods of heating achieved in flame sterilizers and some
forms of agitation cooker-coolers. However, it is generally applicable to continuous
flow sterilization for liquids in which more efficient heat transfer method is used. Milk
industry uses the term UHT (Ultra Heat Treated) for continuous sterilization of milk
which is nothing but HTST process.

4.9.1.Two methods of applying HTST technique

Heating the food to high temperature in bulk, or on-stream, after which it
may or may not be cooled before filling. The hot product temperature is utilized
to sterilize the container or the package.
Heating the food to high temperature and holding in bulk or on-stream to
effect sterilization, after which it is cooled, filled and sealed in sterile containers
under aseptic condition. In fact, this method serves as the basis for aseptic
packaging of foods. However, the two methods explained earlier are
applicable to foods with certain desirable characteristics. These methods are
not applicable to only solid foods or to foods which do not move inside the
packages or sterilizers.
4.10.Aseptic Packaging
The traditional method of sterilization involves filling the food into its containers which
is then hermetically sealed before heat treatment in the retort. The continuous flow
system combined with aseptic filling was developed from the retort system because
increasing the temperatures in combination with shorter holding time has the same
lethal effect on microorganisms while reducing the adverse effects of other possible
chemical reactions on the food. Moreover in a continuous flow process, the product
temperature can be raised and lowered more rapidly than in batch process. Hence
the time distribution for several parts of the food system will be more even.

Aseptic packaging involves placing a sterile product into a sterile package within a
sterile environment and sealing them air tight (hermetically sealed). The pack must
prevent subsequent re-infection of the product. Aseptic packaging linked with U.H.T
(Ultra heat treated) processing offers advantages, over sterilizations in the container,
of reduced heat denaturation, reduced energy cost for sterilization and opportunity to
use cheaper containers. In addition, rapid heat transfer rates are achieved by
passing the product through a plate or other specially designed heat exchangers.

4.10.1.Product sterilization
Three steps involved in product sterilization are

Heating it to raise the temperature to the desired level

Passing the products through a temperature holding section for a
predetermined time
Cooling the product as fast possible to a temperature of 35oC or less prior to
filling.
The type of heat exchanger used will be determined by the nature of the product. In
any continuous process, size of any particulate matter is limited to about 8-10mm dia.
The equipments used can be classified according to the method of heat exchange
used.

4.10.1.1. Indirect heat exchangers

In case of indirect heat exchangers, the product and heating medium are separated
by a wall the heating surface. Heat is supplied by steam or hot water.
There are three types,
Tubular heat exchangers
Plate heat exchangers
Scraped surface heat exchangers.

4.10.1.2.Direct heat exchangers

The Product and heating medium are in direct contact. The only heating medium
applicable to food is steam which condenses in the product. In this there are two
alternatives.
Injection of steam into the product
 Infusion of product into the steam
Other methods of heat exchange involve dielectric heating and mechanical friction
heating where heat is directly transferred to the product.

4.10.2.Sterilization of the packaging

Before packing the food in aseptic packaging, the packaging container must be
sterilized separately. The principal requirements of any method of sterilization for the
package or packaging material are that they should be continuous, rapid and
economical as well as safe without any side effects or environmental risks to
operators. The methods currently in use are
Physical processes include sterilization by steam or hot air and heat or by
utilizing energy applied in the process of making material or containers.
Chemical process utilizes such chemicals as chlorine, per acetic acid and
hydrogen peroxide.
Combination technique: Hydrogen peroxide in conjunction with heat and at
much lower concentration in conjunction with U.V. irradiation is the main
combination techniques.
To reduce contamination, sterilization of packaging materials is not carried out until
just before filling. The oldest method still in use is exposure to super heated steam or
hot air. However, because of high temperature involved in this method, the choice of
packaging is limited to glass container or cans. Treatment of plastics or tetra packs
are mainly carried out using chemicals or combination systems.

A better way to use heat sterilization is to take advantage of the heat generated
during the manufacture of packaging. The temperature reached during melting and
extruding plastics are usually well above that needed for sterilization. Therefore
immediately after forming plastic containers films or laminates are quite sterile. In
some systems, the formed bottle is passed to the filling head under sterile condition
immediately. In another system plastic bottle is sealed and hence interior is kept
sterile, till it is filled. Such containers can be kept for a long time without becoming
infected. A similar principle adopted even with extruded sheets, where a protective
peelable layer is provided both on the material used for thermoformed containers and
the lidding material. Just prior to processing, the protective layer is peeled off.

In continuous process, web sterilization is carried out using hydrogen peroxide and
heat. The packaging materials passes into and through a both of chemicals, surplus
liquid is removed by rollers. The container is then formed by heat sealing (in the form
of a tube) the remaining peroxide is then removed by a radiant heat. The materials
from which containers are to be made are sometimes sterilized by chemicals e.g.
Ethylene oxide before it leaves the converter. The container is then formed at the
packers plant and sterilized with a spray of peroxides by blowing with sterile hot air to
remove excess.

4.10.3.Maintaining sterile conditions during plant operation

Contamination of microorganisms can only be excluded by designing the plant
efficiently, adopting sound hygienic engineering principles and maintaining rigorous
regimes of control to ensure that the plant is operated properly. Hygiene is
paramount in all considerations of design. The design should take three main
considerations into account.

The plant processing area must allow effective sanitization and even
sterilization before the start up.
It must completely isolate the product from surrounding environment and the
operating personnel.
The product must flow without any risk that material could lodge during
production so at to give rise to microbial growth.
At present, aseptic packaging is adopted for liquids and thick liquids. With recent
developments, it is possible to sterilize solids of size 1 to 3 cm in liquids or thick
liquids using modern, well designed equipments. Even though it is not possible
produce traditional type canned fish products using these systems, it may be possible
aseptically packed curry or tomato sauce products containing small sized fish meat
without bones and skin.
Unit 5 - Changes in canned foods and spoilage

5.1.Changes in canned foods and spoilage

Change is the rule of nature and canned product is no exception to this rule. Some
changes make the product more acceptable. For example, fish absorbs salt over a
period of time from filling media and it will have better taste than when it was just
prepared. Some changes are detrimental changes to the quality of the product.
However, if the detrimental changes are unacceptable to the consumer, such a
change is termed as spoilage. In canning method of preservation, most of the
detrimental changes arrested by excluding oxygen from inside space of the can,
destroying enzymes and microorganisms by heat. Some changes, even though more
slowly take place even in food cans and its characteristics change over a period of
time, most of these changes may not be acceptable.

5.1.1.Changes taking place during processing

Changes taking place in canned foods can be classified as those taking place during
processing and those taking place after processing. These can also be classified as
those responsible for spoilage and that not responsible spoilage.

5.1.1.1.Desirable changes
Absorption of salt by fish
Destruction of enzymes
Destruction of microorganisms
Denaturation of protein (Nutritive value does not change)
Softening of bones fins and scales and becomes edible; uniformity of taste
and flavour throughout the pack (e.g. curry packs).

5.1.1.2.Undesirable changes
Loss of amino acid
Loss of vitamins
Fat oxidation rancidity
By adopting good manufacturing practice, these can be minimized.

Other changes are,

Non-enzymatic browning reactions
Drying and browning solids at the top end
Retort burn in foods adhered to can surface
Sulphide blackening in tuna, shrimp and crab meat due to presence of
cystine, sysn and methionine (sulphur containing amino acids reacting with tin
& iron to form sulphides).
Internal corrosion by electrochemical reaction catalysed by oxygen and acid,
as a result tin and iron gets into foods giving metallic taste to the product. Also,
 hydrogen is produced and reduces vacuum. If metal content exeeds certain
limits the product becomes unacceptable.
Loss or absorption of moisture by the solids in the pack. These changes
lead to alteration in net weight of solids and generally observed in shrimp
cans.

5.1.2.Changes during storage of processed cans

Due to exchange of various components of food, it becomes balanced with respect to
taste and flavour. This may take place in three months for certain foods and in some
others it may take even six months (e.g. acidity, saltiness, sugar) resulting in
maturation of can.
All the changes happening during heat processing also happens during storage even
though at a slow rate.
During long storage period, the vacuum inside the can reduces and composition of
head space gases change. Oxygen content reduces within a short time, hydrogen
content increase in acid foods, carbon dioxide also increases and in some foods
ammonia and other gases may be produced.
In addition to these changes, loss of colour and flavour, softening of solids, fat
oxidation, rancidity and subsequent browning, loss of clarity of brine etc occur during
long term storage of canned foods. However, in spite of these changes, not much of
change in nutritive value takes place and food remains good without spoilage.

5.2.Spoilage in canned foods

For any reason, if the food packed inside the can is not acceptable for human
consumption such a can is considered as spoiled can.
It is very difficult to ascertain whether the food is good or bad by external attributes of
a can. When the food inside is spoilt, gases are generated which exert pressure on
the can ends and the cans bulge. If the can ends are convex or bulged, it can be
generally assumed that the cans are spoilt. Bulged cans cannot be marketed. Even
though bulged cans are rejected, food inside such can need not be inedible on all
occasions. Spoilage of food inside the can need not be the only reason for bulging of
cans.
Some bacteria (e.g. B.stearothermophilus) do not produce gas when it spoils food. In
such cases, even though the food inside is spoilt, the cans appear good with flat
ends. In such cans the acidity will be high (low pH) and the food develops sour taste.
Hence it is known as flat sour spoilage.

5.2.1.Bulged (swollen) cans

Bulged cans are classified into 4 categories.
Flipper
Springer
Soft swell
Hard swell
5.2.1.1. Flipper

In this pressure inside the can is equal to the atmospheric pressure (Vacuum O) or
inside pressure is slightly higher than atmospheric pressure and this excess pressure
is equal to resistance of can end. When such a can is hit on the table, the can end
flips out and becomes convex. Where the convex end is pressed it becomes flat
again. The reasons for this spoilage are,
Under exhausting
1st stage of H2 production
1st stage microbial activity
Pre-processing spoilage of food

5.2.1.2. Springer

If the inside pressure is more than in the case of flipper, one end of the can remains
permanently convex and if this end is pressed down, the other end flips out. The
reasons for this spoilage are the same as in flipper.

5.2.1.3. Soft swell

Permanently convex can ends but when pressed by finger it get depressed but when
the pressure is removed it regains original bulge.

5.2.1.4. Hard swell

Permanently convex ends and do not get depressed due to pressure by fingers. Soft
and hard swell are due to high pressure gases, more hydrogen production or
advance bacterial reaction.

5.2.2.Causes of spoilage in canned foods

To consider that the canned food is not spoilt, both the shape of the can and the food
packed inside should be in good condition.
There are many causes for the spoilage of cans which can be classified as follows,
Physical causes
Chemical causes
Microbial causes

5.2.2.1.Physical causes
When the food can are lifted, moved from one place to the other loaded into baskets
for retorting or packed in boxes, they are likely to get damaged if carelessly handled.
The can loses its appearance. If the dents are small, the food inside the may not get
affected. If the dent is on or near the double seam, it may become lose and leads to
leakage. Physical damage can also occur due to sudden increase or decrease of
pressure in the retort and leads to panelling. The other reason is over packing of food
as there is no space for expansion of can contents during retorting, this may lead to
flipper or springer type of spoilage. Moreover, over packing leads to under processing
and the surviving bacteria can grow inside and spoil the can (bulging).

5.2.2.2.Chemical causes
The chemical reaction between the food and the can materials (tin, iron) is the
important chemical cause for spoilage. Due to this reaction hydrogen gas is produced
and the metal ions are formed, as a result metal content in the product increases.
When hydrogen gas is produced, the food inside the can may still be good but the
consumers may not accept it. Excess heat processing also leads to non-enzymatic
browning reaction resulting in brown discolouration and charring.

5.2.2.3. Microbial causes

During pre-processing, that is during the preparation of raw material or after packing
but before retorting, the bacteria present in food may spoil it to some extent. Though
heat processing kills the bacteria, the quality of food cannot be improved. If the
extent of spoilage is less, it goes unnoticed, but if the extent is more, then it is called
as pre-process spoilage. In pre-process spoilage pH changes to some extent, gases
are produced and the food becomes soft. When canning machines break down in the
factory or if there is power failure or for any other reason, half completed cans, filled
and seamed cans held up for a long time before heat processing, pre-process
spoilage occur. In such cans flipper or springer may be observed. It may not lead to
hard swell. In such cans, living microorganisms or their spore may not be found. But
microscopic examination show more dead cells. The quality of food inside may not be
good. By minimising delay in each stage and from one stage to the other and also by
observing good hygiene and sanitation practices, this type of spoilage can be
minimised.
5.2.2.3.1.Under-processing
Second reason for spoilage of food can is under-processing. Under-processing may
be due to several reasons listed below.
Inadequate thermal process to kill the most significant microorganisms.
Contamination by highly heat resistant organism not usually present in the
food.
Unusually high level of contamination by usual contaminant
microorganisms.
Faculty retort operation.
Improper working of instruments fixed to the retorts.
Air inside the retort due to incomplete venting.
Changes in consistency, improper fill with respect to higher weight of solids,
solid-liquid ratio, head space etc.
Low initial temperature of the product.
In spoilt can due to the under processing, generally one type of heat resistant spore
former is observed. Such cans give positive results during microscopic examination
and also in culture. High degrees of swelling such as soft and hard swell are
observed. In fish cans, the hardness of bones indicates whether the can is under
processed.

5.2.2.3.2.Post-processing spoilage
Another microbial spoilage is post-processing spoilage. In spite of conducting
preparation, processing and can cooling in a proper way, sometimes heat processed
cans spoil due to entry of microorganisms into the can. Leakage of cans is the only
reason for this kind of spoilage.
The reasons for this spoilage are
Loose double seam
Sudden increase or decrease of pressure in the retorts
Physical damage at the double seam
As water sucked into the can while can cooling, microorganisms present water get
into it and spoil the food. Sometimes, leaked cans close by itself and due to gases
produced inside, the cans bulge. Such a spoilage is called as leaker spoilage. In
such cans, a variety of microorganisms (mixture of non-spore formers or spore
formers) are present. Addition of 4-7 ppm of free chlorine in can cooling water
minimises this spoilage. In air cooling this spoilage is much less than in water
cooling.

5.2.2.4.Other causes of spoilage

Rusting of cans, an important cause for major loss in canning industry.
Storage in humid atmospheric conditions, salty breeze, corrosive fumes,
fluctuations in storage temperatures lead to rusting of cans. Careless handling
of cans, rusted trolleys and crates, heavy embossing of can ends for coding
and over cooling of cans are some of reasons for rusting.
Corrosive label pastes or adhesives.
Bad storage conditions (dust, storing on the floor, leakage from top layer of
cans etc).
5.2.2.5.Problems (spoilages) in canned marine products
Sulphide blackening
Curd or adhering
Blue discolouration
Honey combing
Struvite formation
Retort burn
Case hardening

5.2.2.5.1. Sulphide blackening or iron sulphide blackening

It is most commonly observed in canned shrimp, lobster, crab less commonly in other
products etc. Though the cans are coated with sulphur resistant lacquer, any
imperfection in the lacquer coating during its manufacture or subsequent reforming or
any scratches during handling expose the tin layer and trimethyl amine present in
marine products dissolve tin layer exposing iron. Sulphur containing components of
marine products chemically react with iron to form black iron-sulphide causing black
discolouration on the inner can surface. This reaction is more under alkaline condition
and when less fresh or spoilt materials are used.

Uniform lacquering of can, its careful handling and use of parchment paper while
packing can minimise this problem.

5.2.2.5.2. Curd or adhesion

Curd is nothing but salt soluble coagulated or precipated protein and often found at
the top of canned Salmon or Mackerel. This problem is more in fish canned in natural
style or without precooking. The curd may adhere to can surface and the lacquer may
get peeled off when the curd is removed. The reasons for curd formation are use of
less fresh fish, inadequate brining and precooking. This can be prevented by cold
blanching of fish (brining) in 10-15% brine for 20-30 minutes and subsequent
washing.

5.2.2.5.3. Blue discolouration

This is associated with canned crab meat. Meats from parts of the body having poor
blood circulation than the legs/claw. Such meat shows high degree of blueing. The
haemocyanin in the crab haemolymphs react with sulphur compounds especially
during heat processing to produce blue copper sulphide. This is evident when copper
in meat is more than 2mg/100g. The problem can be minimised by thorough bleeding
of crab while dressing so that the Cu level is reduced to less than 2mg%. Other
methods of minimising this problem are use of chelating agent in brine, maintenance
of proper acidity in the can.
5.2.2.5.4. Honey combing
It occurs is canned tuna processed from stale raw material. Meat in the can
resembles a honey comb. Use fresh raw material and slow thawing of frozen tuna
without rough handling can minimise this problem.

5.2.2.5.5. Struvite formation

Some canned marine products such as brine packed shrimp, crab or tuna shows the
presence of some glass like crystals. These crystals at made up of [Mg NH4
PO4.6H2O] Magnesium ammonium phosphate hexa hydrate. These crystals form
when the pH of meat is more than 6.8.

Struvite is a harmless, colourless, odourless transparent chemical. However, large

crystals appear as if they are broken glass pieces which are disliked by consumers.
However, if the product is cooled rapidly, small crystals are formed and they go un-
noticed. The formation of these crystals may be prevented by the addition of
chelating agent such as sodium hexa metaphosphate or EDTA.

Use of hard water, stale raw material and presence of magnesium in salt used in
canning are responsible for the formation of these crystals.

5.2.2.5.6. Retort burn

It is usually associated with canned shell fish like clam mussels or oysters. This is
due to insufficient filling medium to cover the meat completely.

5.2.2.5.7. Case hardening

Surface of fish meat gets dehydrated and hard cover is formed on the surface of
meat, caused by high heat process and too quick heating process.
Unit 6 - Canning of commercially important fishes and
shellfishes

6.1.Canning of commercially important fishes

The seafood canning had its origin in North America and later spread to Europe,
Japan and other countries. The technology for the container development (tin cans)
was the key to successful canning of seafood. The canning of salmon, mackerel,
sardines and mackerel like fishes, tuna, shellfishes such as prawn (shrimp), crabs,
lobsters, cuttle fish, clams, mussels and oyster are produced commercially.

6.1.1.General principles and methods followed in canning

The general principles and methods followed in canning of different seafood are all
similar, the notable differences being in the preparation o the raw material for the
can. In outline the procedure is as follows,
The preparatory steps should be suitable for the raw material on the one hand and to
the requirements of the consumer on the other.

Fish are canned generally in,

Natural pack (Salmon style)
Brine pack
Oil pack
Curry pack and tomato sauce
Fresh fishes are preferred for packing in natural style without much pre-process
operations.

6.1.2.Fish canning
This involves washing and cleaning the raw fish, beheading removal of fins, tail and
viscera, washing thoroughly, cutting to suit can size and packing.

Precooking and draining the cook liquor gives better product quality. Refined / double
refined vegetable oils (soybean oil, cotton seed oil, olive oil, etc.,) may be used as
filling medium instead of (2%) salt brine. Sauce or curries are other options available
to fill the cans.

Fish with scales are to be de-scaled either by scaling machines or by manual

operation (In Spain and other Mediterranean countries fish with scales are canned).

6.2.Canning of individual category to fish

In this chapter, canning of individual category of fishes are summarized with respect
to materials used, their characteristics, procedure followed and specific problems
encountered in each case.

6.2.1.Salmon and Salmon like fishes

There are several species of salmon are commercially available and the species
preferred is based on the color of the meat and fat content. Some of the commercially
available varieties are as follows.

King salmon/sock eye salmon/ red salmon: The meat of this fish is firm with
bright red color and it is medium fatty fish.
Spring salmon: The color of meat is pink to deep pink, has medium texture,
oily flesh.
Silver salmon: Meat color is pale, oily, firm flesh.
Pink salmon: Meat color is pink but soft flesh.
Chum salmon: Yellow flesh.
Sock eye and spring salmon are the most preferred for canning as they have deep
pink to red colour for the fish and the colour is retained even after thermal processing
(retorting). Chum salmon is the least preferred.
For canning both fresh and frozen raw materials are used and they are graded before
dressing. For dressing salmon, iron chink machines are used which removes head
and tail, splits the belly and removes viscera and fins. After dressing it is transferred
to trimming table for removing adhering loose pieces of flesh, blood remnants and
further subjected for water washing. The fish are cut to size depending on the type of
container used. The packing of fish is done manually. The filled cans are added with
required quantity of powdered crystalline salt to get good taste and then sealed. This
is the simplest procedure with minimum treatment given to raw material. In this style
of canning fish retains its original characteristics to a maximum extent and hence it is
called as natural style/pack or salmon style. For this style very fresh fish is required. If
very fresh mackerel is available, it can be packed in natural/ salmon style.

6.2.1.1.Specific problems encountered in salmon canning

Curd formation and adhesion

Abnormal petroleum odour due to dimethyl sulphide often encountered in
canned chum salmon. This is due to the consumption of Pteropoda
(Limacina helicina) plankton. The plankton contains a chemical compound
dimethyl, propiothetin which is absorbed by the flesh of the fish and gets
converted to dimethyl sulphide during heat processing.

6.2.2.Tuna and tuna like fish

Several varieties of tuna are being canned. Some of the important varieties are
Albacore/long fin tuna
Yellow fin tuna
Big eye tuna
Blue fin
Skip jack
Bonito
Albacore or long fin tuna has flesh with pinkish colour and proportion of colour
pigment is low. It also contains larger proportion of light/white meat and hence most
commonly used.

6.2.2.1.Classification of tuna meat based on colour

Based on colour, tuna is designated as follows
White : Tuna meat having Munsel value (MV) of 6.3 or more. Only albacore
is having this designation.
Light : Any tuna with meat not darker than M.V of more than 5.3 but less
than 6.3.
Dark : Any tuna darker than MV of 5.3 (less M.V than 5.3)
Any tuna having meat with M.V of less than 5.3 are not suitable for canning.

For tuna canning, both fresh and frozen material are used. There are several styles
of canned tuna products. The different steps involved in canning of tuna is by and
large same despite differences in variation in the size of the species, proportion of
light and dark meat and the styles of liquid fillings.

After dressing the fish are semi dressed and precooked. Precooking is done at 100 to
105oC and time may vary from 1-7 hr depending on the size of fish. During
precooking the centre temperature should attain at least 71oC. After precooking, it is
cooled and partially dried in chilled atmosphere. Separation of light and dark meat is
achieved manually and light meat is used as lions for packing into the cans.

6.2.2.2.Changes taking place by precooking and cooling

By precooking and cooling the following changes take place.
Loss in its weight to the extent of 25%.
Physico-chemical properties of muscle change
Coagulation of meat proteins
Firmness in meat due to partial dehydration
Improvement in nutritional value
Improvement in taste and appearance.

After precooking and cooling, the skin and red/dark meat is removed and this process
is known as Cleaning. Thus white meat is separated in the form of loins (quarter
fillets). The fillets are cut while removing tail, backbone and the loins are cut. The
loins are cut to desired can size. The dark meat and other waste materials are added
with Vitamin E and used for pet food preparation.

6.2.2.3.Various styles of packing of tuna meat in cans

Tuna meat is packed in cans in various styles.
Solid pack consist of cleaned loins cut in transverse segment suitable for
packing in one layer based on can size without placing any transverse
segment parallel to can ends.
Chunk style consists of mixture of pieces of tuna in which 50% is the
pressed loins and the rest may be smaller pieces of size or smaller.
Grated style: Tuna meat is reduced in size using a grinder to uniform size of
less than . The particle must be discrete and should not become a paste.
Flakes small meat chunks which are obtained during grating of tuna meat.
The filling medium used for tuna may be refined vegetable oil or brine.
Specific problem/spoilage associated with canned tuna is the green meat formation
which is related to freshness of raw material.

6.2.3.Canning of sardine and sardine like fish

Sardines are canned either by Mediterranean method (raw pack method) or by
Norwegian method by hot smoking (instead of precooking) and packing method.

Mediterranean method: Fish is washed in brine first and then Nobbed (Nobbing refers
to removal of head, gills and entrails). Nobbing is achieved mechanically.
Alternatively, nobbed fish is then brined. The nobbed fish packed into cans,
precooked at 100oC normal atmospheric pressure using steam.The period
precooking varies from 15-30 min depending on the size and fat content of fish. After
precooking, the cans are inverted to drain liquor comprising water and fat. The
precooked fish is filled with brine / oil prior to seaming.

Norwegian method: In this method Nobbing and brining procedure is similar to

Mediterranean method. Then it is hot smoked and dried (smoking at 80oC for 2 hr)
and then packed into cans. The filling media can be either brine or vegetable oil and
then subjected for seaming and heat processing

6.2.3.1.Canning of Shrimp
Among crustaceans, canning of shrimps is more widely practiced commercially.
Removal of exoskeleton of shrimps is referred as peeling. This is done manually. The
removal of internal organs(gastrointestinal tract, reproductive organs and
hepatopancreas) is termed as deveining. After peeling and deveining, shrimps are
blanched in 6% brine for 6 mins in boiling brine. Salt concentration and blanching
time depends on the size of shrimp and variety.

Blanching is done to get

Proper curing (salt absorption)
Required pink colour
Good texture and flavour
Reduced moisture content
To maintain no loss or no gain in moisture content even after heat
processing/to control drained weight.
After blanching, shrimps are packed in desired can size and then filled with media
like oil or brine . Sometimes natural packs are also commonly practiced. Vacuum
exhausting, seaming and retorting are the unit operations followed to complete the
process.

Problem specific to canned shrimp

Retort burn in dry pack use parchment lining is followed to overcome then
same.
Sulphide blackening Black spots appear inside can which is not
acceptable. Sulphide blackening can be avoided by use of fresh raw material,
use parchment paper especially at the side seam and use citric acid in brine.

6.2.3.2.Canning of Crab
Canning of crab differs from fish and shrimp in that it is subjected to heat prior to
meat separation. Only live crabs are used for canning. They are butchered by
removing the carapace or back shell, eviscerated, and allowed to bleed as much as
possible. Then they are washed thoroughly in running water to remove even traces of
its blood. The claws are separated and washed thoroughly. The washed claws and
body are blanched in 2% salt brine for 10 to 15 min, cooled in ice water and the meat
is picked using scissors/knife. Picked meat is packed into cans either as single face
pack, i.e. body meat is packed into the can and on the top claw meat is arranged or
on double face pack i.e. claw meat is arranged on top and bottom end of the can and
finally filled with 2% brine containing 0.2% citric acid. The can is then exhausted and
heat processed. Crab meat is also canned as a dry pack without any filling medium.

Some problems associated with canned crab meat are,

Blackening or black discolouration. This problem is minimised by giving a
lining of parchment paper to the can.
Retort burn.
Blue discolouration. Bleeding the crab and washing thoroughly can minimise
this problem. This problem can also be eliminated by the addition of chelating
agents such as EDTA or citric acid in the filling brine.

6.2.4.Canning of Molluscs
Canning of bivalves
For canning of molluscs such as clams, only live shells are used. The opened shells
are considered as dead shells. Live clams are washed in water and kept in
comparatively a thin layer in running water for about 12 hours. As calms are filter
feeders, they accumulate sand inside the shells and by keeping in water as
mentioned above, the accumulated sand get eliminated. However, the water used
should not contain chlorine in it. Chlorine in water leads to death of the shells.
Removal of sand by this method is known as depuration.

Washed live shells are steamed for 15min at 100oC and the meat is shucked. In the
case of large sized clams the shells are spread as a single layer while steaming and
the cooked liquid coming out of the meat gets accumulated in the shell which is
carefully collected by suction device and filtered. The filtered clam juice is known as
clam nectar used for flavouring canned clam products or marketed as canned clam
nectar. After steaming the meat is separated from shells and the process is known as
shucking. In the case of small sized clams the shucked meat is used as it is whereas
the digestive organs, liver etc. are separated from the meat of large sized clams. The
shucked meat is cleaned by washing, graded and then blanched in 5% table salt
brine for 5 to 7 minutes. The blanched meat is packed into cans added with 3% table
salt brine, exhausted, seamed, heat processed and cooled. In the case of masala
pack, the shucked meat is fried in oil containing salt and spice powders on a frying
pan for a short duration of time, then packed into cans and further processed as
explained earlier.

6.2.5.Canning of Cephalopods
For canning of cephalopods like squids, very fresh raw material is required.
Freshness of squid can be judged by its characteristic odour and the colour of the
mantle. Squids which have lost its freshness will have light pink colour on its mantle
i.e. after removal of skin and washing. Such squids are not suitable for canning.
Squids are then graded for size and quality. The raw material is then dressed by
removing the head, tentacles, viscera and skin. The mantles thus obtained are
washed thoroughly to remove slime and other adhering impurities. The washed
mantles are either cut into rings of about 1 to 1.5 cm width or as strips of 2 x 4 cm.
The cut and prepared raw material is blanched in boiling salt brine for about 5
minutes, cooled under a current of air, packed into cans, filled with brine containing
small amounts of monosodium glutamate and 0.2% citric acid. For the preparation of
masala pack, the blanched and dried squids are fried in oil and further processed as
the case of canning of clams in masala.
Unit 7 - Fish Packaging

7.1.Introduction to Packaging
The term packaging refers to wrapping or covering any items including food to protect
from damage / spoilage and present aesthetic look. More often, packaging of food
items are used to extend the keeping quality and minimize contamination. Packaging
of food including fish and fishery products is a huge industry and in this section some
basic aspects of packaging has been dealt.

7.2.Early Packaging
There has always been some kind of packaging even from the earliest days of
civilization. When a Stone Age man killed a wild animal and carried it home or to the
campfire to share with his family, he probably wrapped the meat in a skin or in leaves
to protect it from insects, the sun or rain. Since the earliest times people have stored
as much food as possible to last them through the harsh season like winter.
Subsequently, glass was developed about in 1500 B.C. In 1795, Napoleon offered a
prize for anyone who could suggest a method of preserving food and in response, a
Chef, Nicholas Appert used sealed containers and glass bottles along with heat
process to preserve food. This was the beginning of modern food packaging.

7.3.Functions of Packaging
Primarily, there are three functions for packaging as follows.
To contain the product
To protect (and preserve) the product
To present the product to the consumer in attractive way

In addition to the above mentioned primary functions, there are some subsidiary
functions. They are,
By acting as a dispenser when it reaches the consumer, e.g. Milk carton
after opening, can be folded into a spout so that milk can be poured without
spillage. Another example is that a spout is attached near the bottle opening to
prevent spillage oil form the bottle while emptying.
As a container in which fast foods may be heated or in which hot foods may
be deposited (as in the case of a plate)Some important factors to be
considered for the type of packaging material to be used in the food are,
the raw material used for packaging is easily available and
economically viable
the material should withstand the stress and strain of machineries
which often operate at high speeds.
The package must not have any adverse effects on the contents and must
comply with all legal requirements. Also, due consideration should be given to
the ultimate disposal of packaging materials and their effect on environment.
Containment is fairly obvious and basic function since the package must hold all that
is within a unit and keep it together during transport and storage. The package must
not leak and must contain a convenient and correct quantity of a material.

7.3.1.Protection and preservation

Protection and preservation of the product during transit, storage, display at the point
of sale and carriage to and storage in the consumers home are essential functions of
any package.

In order to protect the product, we need to know the following product characteristics.
Mechanical strength of the product.
Whether the product undergoes undesirable moisture exchange with its
surroundings.
Whether it supports microbial growth
Whether it is chemically reactive.

Protecting means prevention of

Microbial growth
Oxidation or enzymatic rancidity
Colour change.

Preservation can be taken more widely to relate to prevention of any change in food
as presented to the consumer. Thus loss of color or flavor, for whatever reason will
be interpreted by the consumer as evidence of spoilage.

7.4.Presentation of the product

Presentation of the product by the package is achieved by
Giving attractive appearance to the package or making the package eye
catching through the use of colour, shape and design.
Making the package as a source of information about the product
Making the package to carry sales message.

7.4.1.Labeling
Labeling on the package provides information on the food, durability (best use before
the date), quantity, ingredients, nutritional facts, country of origin, and name of
manufacturer. Several informations are presented on the label are as follows.

7.4.1.1.Name of Food
A name prescribed by law or a customary name (A trade mark, brand name or fancy
name may also be included, but not instead of the name of the food). Any special
treatment the food has been subjected to must be included.
7.4.1.2.Minimum durability
As determined by the manufacturer or processor, the duration for which the product
will retain its quality both in terms of safety and spoilage must be given for foods.
With a shelf life of more than 6 months but less than 18 months and should be
expressed as Sell by or best before date in terms of month and year. Shelf life
upto 6 weeks, should include day and month (+ sign is an indication of period for
which food will retain its properties under the storage conditions).

7.4.1.3.Quantity
The quantity of the product inside the package should be given on the label. If the
product is a mixture of solid and liquid, the gross weight and net weight should be
mentioned. It is required to mention on the label because of the weights and
measures act. This must be clearly legible, in a conspicuous place and all in the
same field of vision.

7.4.1.4.Ingredients list
Food with more than one ingredient must have them listed in descending weight
order, with water included if it constitutes more than 5%of the finished total weight.

7.4.1.5.Name and address of manufacturer

The address details of manufacturer of the product should be provided. The contact
details should include telephone number, e-mail id and mail address. or packer or
retailer must be shown.

7.4.1.6.Country of origin
Country of origin must be stated if the product is imported, or packed in the country
after importing. This is not applicable to any EEC member country importing from
other EEC country. At present, the pack is required to carry on e mark when it is to
be exported to any EEC countries.

7.4.1.7.Character size
There are number of requirements with regard to size of the characters in the food
labeling regulations. Some regulations specify minimum character heights in relation
to the size of the pack.
Food labeling regulations are extremely complex and the above is only an outline
intended to indicate the range of items covered. There are a number of exemptions
and variations and any one responsible for implementation should refer to the
Regulations (laws) for detailed requirements.
7.4.1.8.Bar coding
When a retailer operates point of sale scanning, they have a requirement for the pack
to carry a bar code representing the European article number (EAN) or the Universal
Product Code (UPC in the USA).
The European article number consists of 13 digits.

50 12345 67890 0

Country Manf. Item No. Check digit Code

No.

Each type of pack is thus given a unique number which can be read electronically
using a light pen or low intensity laser scanner linked to a computer. This system is
used by the retailer for automatic checking of sales price (no need to price mark
individual packs), the capture of sales information and automatic recording through
the computer. The customer receives an itemized bill receipt and should benefit by
quicker movement through the check-out. Such a system places additional
requirements on label design and accuracy of printing. The code must not distract the
customer from the sales impact of pack design but needs to be suitably positioned for
scanning. The code must be printed accurately without distortion and in a suitable
colour to be scanned efficiently.

7.5.Levels of Packaging
There are three levels of packaging. They are primary, secondary and tertiary
packaging.
Primary packaging is for a retail unit. The function of a primary package is to
hold the product, e.g. bag, can, carton, bottle or tube.
Secondary packaging is a shipping or outer container. It holds a group of
primary packages, e.g. Corrugated fibre board box or shrink wrap. Outer
container used has to provide information as to their destination and
instructions for handling, storage and opening. In recent days there is an
increasing need for outer containers to present the product in an eye catching
manner and the traditional brown box is becoming less acceptable with the
growth of superstores, hypermarkets and cash and carry outlets.
Tertiary packaging holds a number of primary or secondary packages on a
pallet for loading into and out of trucks. This may involve simply strapping
secondary packages in place, or using shrink or stretch wrapping with plastic
film to give added protection.Tertiary levels of packaging serve mainly to
collate and protect secondary packages (containing the primary packages) in
transit and storage. When all three levels of packaging are used, they should
be complementary to one another.
7.6.Packaging Materials
For packaging, a wide variety of materials are being used which may be grouped as
follows.
Plastics
Paper and paper board
Glass containers
Earthenware and ceramics
Metal containers
Natural materials such as
Wood
Straw
Leaves
Jute and textiles
Bamboo and cane
Unit 8 - Metal Containers

8.1.Metal Containers
For the last 170 years, the traditional 3 piece, soldered side seam cans made from tin
coated low carbon steel plates were being used. In recent years, that are from mid
1960s various kinds of new metal containers have been developed.

Some of the recently developed metal containers are,

Cemented side seam cans.
Welded cans.
Drawn wall ironed cans (DWI).
Drawn redrawn cans (DRD).
Drawn thin drawn cans.

In addition, above mentioned (2, 3, 4 & 5) type of cans were also manufactured from
aluminium.

8.1.1.Advantages of metal containers

Metal containers can be used for canning all types of foods, any type of
process (high temperature) and various types of filling.
They can be vacuum sealed.
Good barrier to light, gases and moisture.
Reliable double seaming can be done and seal integrity can be checked
even by non destructive (acoustic and optical) methods.
High speed of filling sealing and production.
Excellent durability and long distance transport is possible due to rigidity.
Convenience can be added, such as easy open ends.
Metal cans can be lacquered, printed and decorated.

8.1.2.Base plates and Tin plates

Tin containers for the manufacture of three piece open top sanitary cans, tin plates
are being used. Tin plate is made from low carbon steel plate or sheet. Three or four
different low carbon steel designated by the letter L, MC, MR and K types are used
for tin plating. Tin plating (coating) can be done by hot dipping method, consumes
more tin which is expensive. At present almost all the tin plates are manufactured by
electro deposition method. The tin weight on the steel plate varies from 1.12g / m2 to
15 g / m2 on each side. Tin plates with differential coatings are also available. Tin
coating generally protects the base steel from rust and corrosion, give bright
appearance and enables the plate to take up lacquer and print.

8.1.3.Electrolytic chromium coated steel (ECCS)

Because of rising price of tin, Tin free steel (TFS) cans were developed. For tin free
steel cans manufacture, electrolytic chromium coated steel plate usually referred on
black plate of type D is preferred. For DWI and DRD cans, aluminium killed steel
plate (black plate) is coated with chromium electrolytically of type D is preferred.
ECCS is manufactured by electrolytic deposition of metallic chromium and chromium
oxide and coated with lubricating oil.

8.1.4.Advantages and disadvantages of ECCS over tin plate

Advantages
Lacquer adhesion on ECCS is superior to tin plate and resistance to under
film (below the lacquer film) corrosion is excellent.
Resistant to sulphide blackening.
Workability of enameled ECCS in superior to tin plate and lacquer adhesion
and strength remains even after deep drawing.
ECCS does not contain low melting tin, hence lacquering can be done at
high temperature for a shorter time.
Low cost compared to other plates for can manufacture.

Disadvantages
In ECCS surface film does not act as a sacrificial layer and prone to
corrosion from outside.
Unlacquered ECCS is less resistant to corrosion than tinplates.
Cans can not be made by side seam soldering. However, cemented side
seam cans, welded cans and DRD cans can be made.

8.1.5.Aluminium
Commercially pure aluminium or aluminium alloy of 1000 or 3000 or 5000 series are
used depending on the container design and fabrication method. (The number
depends on the Content Manganese in the alloy). 3000 series is used for DRD and
DWI cans. 5000 series are used for DRD cans, can ends and ring full tabs (easy
open ends). Manganese increases the strength of the material but reduces
resistance to corrosion to acids and alkalies.

8.1.5.1.Advantages of Aluminium as a food can

No taste odour or flavour (completely bland) hence suitable for delicately
flavored products such as soft drink and beer.
No sulphide staining or blackening
Aluminum is soft and workability is good. The power requirement during
drawing and processing is less.
Light weight.
8.1.5.2.Disadvantages of Aluminium as a food can
Poor resistance to acid and chloride containing products and hence highest
integrity of lacquer or protective coating is required.
Cost is very high.
Weak mechanical properties and hence requires over pressure retort for
heat processing.

8.1.6.Lacquers used in cans (Tin or Steel [TFS] or Aluminium cans)

Requirements for an interior lacquer
To act as a barrier between container and the food.
Should not taint the food.
Should resist physical deformation during can making and food canning
operations.
Firmly adhere to the metal surface. It must be flexible spread evenly and
completely.
It must withstand sterilization temperatures. It must be resistant to acids and
sulphide blackening. The problem of sulphide blackening is overcome by the
addition of zinc oxide to the laquer.

Types of resins currently used

Oleoresinous
Vinyl
Acrylic
Phenolic
Epoxy phenolic.

More recently polyester is being increasingly used on ECCS black plates for making
DWI, DRI and DTR cans. The lacquer thickness should be optimum (neither thin nor
thick) The common dry film weights of lacquer are in the range of 2.5 to 8 g /m2 .
Most lacquers contains yellow color and hence called as golden lacquers. By
lacquering tin coating on the base plate may be reduced by 50 to 75% without
affecting its corrosion resistance.

8.1.6.1.Three piece cans

a) Soldered side seam cans

The cross section body of the side seam can diagrammatically represented as
follows.

b) Cemented side seam cans

c) Welded side seam cans

From the lacquered ECCS black plate, welding is done by mechanical cleaning of
outer 2-3 mm of can blank edges prior to welding in conoweld process to minimise
contamination. The welding is essentially based on resistance welding using
alternating power supply. A solid phase of welded bond is formed over the entire
1.3mm width of electrode rolls. Recently, radical improvements have been made to

convert the butterfly joint ( ) to a solid phase welded bond which extends over

entire overlap of can blank of the body ( ) and welding speed upto 50m/min. The
new WIMA welders welded tin plate cans suitable for food applications. In these
cans, after welding side stripe coating with the lacquer is necessary and this coating
quality determines the corrosion resistance of the can. Epoxy lacquer, vinyl organsol
lacquer or PET powder lacquer are currently used for this purpose.

8.1.6.2.Two piece cans

There are two main methods of producing two piece cans (in seamless body and an
end M cover) DWI and DRD process.
The DWI can has comparatively thick bottom and retained their wall and hence
suitable for only carbonated drinks. For processed foods beaded or corrugated body
is required to prevent it from buckling from internal vacuum.
The sequence of manufacturing in DWI cans.

Then the cans are lacquered by spraying.

8.1.6.3.DRD Cans
DRD cans are made from pre-enameled sheets of metal and sequence of
manufacture is as given below.

The process does not require any enamel repair after the can is formed. This is an
advantage since it is cheaper to apply enamel/lacquer to the sheets than the formed
cans. The walsl thickness in this can is substantially equal to plate thickness. DRI
cans are produced form tin plates, ECCS and aluminium. In recent years use of
ECCS is predominant.

Easy open ends:

Easy open ends such as lids with ring pull tab are being used in such cans.
Unit 9 - Plastics for Packaging

9.1.Plastics for packaging

Plastics are widely used for the manufacture of flexible packaging materials like films,
semi rigid and rigid containers such as jars and bottles. The important plastic
materials used in packaging are discussed below.

9.2.1.Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE)

The most widely used plastic for food packaging films.
Relatively low cost
Fairly tough (good mechanical strength properties such as tensile, burst,
impact and tear strength)
Ease of heat sealing and good seal strength
Good water vapour barrier
Good low temperature resistance.

9.2.1.1.Limitations of LDPE
Not completely clear (Slight haze) can sometimes be a slight disadvantage
for display type packages.
Softens at 90oC, thus it is not suitable for steam sterilization, boil-in bag or
ovenable pack applications.
It is not a good oxygen barrier compared to other plastics.
Does not have good resistance to grease or oil.

9.2.2. Ethylene vinyl acetate

Sometimes for frozen food packaging ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) which is a
copolymer of ethylene and vinyl acetate (to the extent of 15%) is preferred to LDPE
because it has better impact resistance and it is easier to heat seal. However, EVA is
rather more expensive.

9.2.3.Linear Low density polyethylene (LLDPE)

This has an extremely high tensile strength and very high stretch with very good heat
sealing characteristics. Used for heavy duty sacks and stretch wrap applications. It is
used for incorporating into HDPE to reduce brittleness and increase tensile strength
of carry bags.

9.2.4. High density Polyethylene (HDPE)

HDPE gives a stiffer film than LDPE and has higher barrier properties to water
vapour and gases by a factor of around 5. Because of extra stiffness and strength,
HDPE can be used as a very thin film, eg : 10 m, when it is similar to grease proof
tissue paper, it is water proof and hence used for butcher wrappings. As it is tough, it
is used for making super market carry bags. As HDPE does not soften at 100 oC, it
may be used in the manufacture of boil-in-bag type packages.

9.2.5.Ethylene propylene copolymers

These also do soften at boiling water temperature and hence can be used for making
boil- in- bag packs.

9.2.6.Polypropylene (PP)
It has higher softening point 140-150oC than HDPE. It is a good water vapour barrier,
a fairly good gas barrier and has good grease or oil resistance. However, it does not
perform well at low temperature as it becomes brittle and its impact strength gets
lowered. Widely used as bi-axially oriented film (BOPP film) in which the film has
been stretched in two directions during manufacture. BOPP film has improved tensile
strength but reduced tear resistance. It is widely used for packaging snack foods
such as potato crisps and biscuits. Its price is about twice as that of LDPE on weight
basis. However, as it can be extruded very thin more number of pouches can be
obtained.

9.3. Vinyl Plastics

Based upon a CH2 = CH-X monomer where X is the functional group.

9.3.1.Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

It is hard, fairly brittle material but its properties can be modified by the addition of
plasticizers chemicals which when mixed with the polymer, soften it and render it
plastic or flexible. Care is necessary that plasticizes used are compatible with food
use and the maximum residual monomer limit is 1 mg/kg due to its carcinogenic
nature.
As expected from its polar structure, it has higher water vapour permeability than
polyolefins but this is still low enough for many applications. It has high clarity and
excellent oil resistance, softens below 100oC (when there (10-20pem)). Highly
plasticized PVC is used as a cling film for over wrapping super market trays of fresh
produce such as red meat, poultry fresh fruits and vegetable and cheese. As a rigid
thermo-formed foil it is used to separate and restrain the movements of biscuits,
cakes and trifle portions. PVC bottles are widely used for fruit squash cooing oil,
mineral water and sometimes for carbonated drinks (the smaller bottles) PVC is also
used for cap sealing on jars and bottles.
9.3.2.Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
It is a copolymer of vinyl chloride and vinylidine chloride but usually referred as
polyvinylidene chloride.
The important characteristics are
Extremely low water vapor permeability
Extremely low oxygen permeability
Suitable for heat sealing
Very expensive.

Widely used as a very thin barriers coating on other material, eg. Cellulose film
(MXXT), poly propylene and paper for the packaging of moisture sensitive foods.
Thin films may be used for hand wrapping of poultry and cheese where surface
tackiness and cling is an advantage.

9.3.3.Ethylene Vinyl alcohol Copolymer (EVOH)

* Higher water vapour barrier than polyolefins
Extremely low oxygen permeability, in the absence of moisture
High oil resistance
Very expensive

Its outstanding gas barrier properties enable it to be used for packaging foods
sensitive to oxygen but it must be protected from ingress of moisture by laminating as
below.
LLDPE-Water barrier / EVOH-Gas barrier / LLDPE-Heat sealing medium

9.3.4.Polystyrene
PS is a hard and rather brittle material, colourless and transparent unless pigmented.
The addition synthetic butadiene or polybutadiene to polystyrene improve the impact
strength and such material is referred as High Impact PolyStyrene (HIPS).

Important properties of polystyrene are given below.

Fairly high water vapor permeability
Fairly high oxygen permeability
Softens at 85 to 95oC.

Used for screw caps especially polyethylene bottles. Toughened grades (HIPS) high
impact polystyrene are used in making tubs or pots for products such as yoghurt,
dairy cream, glazed cherries etc.,

9.3.5.Expanded polystyrene (EPS)

Produced by mixing PS heads with 5 to 7% blowing agent such as pentene or
chlorofluorocarbon and steam heating at 95oC. PS begins to soften and blowing
agent is released from the solid solution causing rapid expansion of the beads giving
a cellular structure.
EPS is an excellent heat insulator used for containers for hot take away foods or for
boxes for transporting fresh (iced) fish. They are also used for packing where
cushioning is required (Eg. egg trays or fruit or tomato) or as cushioning materials.

9.3.6.Polyester or Polyethylene terephthatate (PET)

This was first developed as a textile fibre by I.C.I Ltd., Later it was developed to form
film and for bottle by stretch below moulding.

The important properties of PET are given below.

High tensile strength and therefore withstands carbon dioxide pressure in
bottles.
High softening point i.e. 245-270oC, but the jars/bottles suffer from distortion
on hot filling.
It has good sparkle and optical clarity.
Good gas barrier, better than PVC and polyolefins (PE&PP). Hence used in
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP), Gas Packaging and Vacuum
packaging.
Fairly low water vapor permeability.
Excellent oil and grease resistance.
Chemical resistance to dilute acids and alkalies but attacked by
concentrated areas.
Excellent Printing Surface: PET bottles upto 3L capacity are widely used
for carbonated drinks where its gas barrier properties and strengths are
valuable. As a film difficult to heat seal (high M.P) and thus coated with PVDC
or laminated to polyethylene. Such laminates are used in vacuum packaging
of cooked meat products, and for boil in bag packs. More recent use for PET is
in the manufacture of ovenable boards for heating in microwave or
conventional hot air ovens. By laminating with other plastics it is also used in
the manufacture of retortable pouches and pouches for MAP products.

9.3.7.Polyamides or Nylons
Nylons are prepared by the condensation of amines with acids and are designated
by the number of carbon atoms in the reactant molecules. For example, Nylon 6:6
(Nylon 6) Nylon 6:10 (Nylon-10) Nylon 6:11 (Nylon 11).

9.3.7.1.Important properties of Nylon

High Water vapour permeability (Polar Nature)
High oil and grease residence (Polar nature)
Low oxygen permeability
Excellent strength
Resistant to caustic alkalies and organic solvents such as alcohols, ether,
benzene xylene, carbon tetrachloride, acetone and many mineral oils.
High melting point.
Polyamide/ LDPE or Polyamide / HDPE combine barrier properties of polyamide
and heat sealing characteristics of PE. Such laminates are used for gas or vacuum
packaging of fish. They are also used in the fabrication of boil in bag or retortable
pouch packaging.
Nylon is rather expensive There are other polymers such as PET, PETG,
Polycarbonate, nitriles as there are not widely used in food packaging and these
will not be discussed in this course.

9.3.8.Regenerated cellulose film

Cellulose is obtained from wood pulp or cotton linters. It is soaked in caustic soda
for about an hour and the recess alkali is pressed out. Residue is pressed and
allowed to age for 2-3 days during which time it absorbs oxygen from air and
reduces the chain length of cellulose. It is dissolved in carbon disulphide solution
and then dispersed in dilute alkali.

9.3.9.Each film designated using codes

Though varying quality cellulose acetate has been prepared, a great deal of
standardization has been done and each type film is designated by using codes as
follows.
P Basic films non moisture proof and Non heat sealable.
M Nitrocellulose coated on both sides moisture proof.
S Heat sealable.
MS Heat sealable, moisture proof.
QM Nitrocellulose coated on both sides but less moisture proof than QM,
PS Nitrocellulose coated on both sides but less moisture proof than GM.
DM Nitrocellulose coated on our side.
MXXT/A- PVDC coated our both sides by aqueous dispersion
MXXT/5 PVDC copolymer coated by solvent process on both sides.
B Opaque
C Coloured Name of the colour follows
F for twist wrap.
Unit 10 - Manufacture of plastic packages

10.1.Manufacture of plastic packages

Plastics used in packaging are mainly thermoplastics which soften, when heated in
contrast to thermo set plastics that do not soften. Conversion of plastics into
packaging usually relies on this thermoplastic property. Heat makes the plastic to
become soft and in this high viscosity form, the soft plastic is made into the desired
shape, which may be summarized as below.

10.1.1.Making of containers and bottles from plastics

Plastic containers and bottles are packs of 3 D type where the empty container has
the same size and shape as the filled pack. Most of these packs are semi rigid rather
than rigid but the demarcation is not sharply defined. Most plastic containers and
bottles are still single layers plastics in contrast to flexible packaging where multi
layers packagings are widely used. However, the use of multilayer containers and
bottles is likely to increase in future.

10.1.1.1.Extrusion
Extrusion is used in most forms of plastic conversion and is important process in both
in rigid and flexible packaging. An extruder, is a machine which has a single screw
that is made to rotate inside a barrel. The geometry of the screw is important and
ideally each plastic would use one type of screw. At the resin feed end (feed zone)
the screw diameter is constant and smallest. In the next region (compression zone)
the core diameter increases. The relative length of this compression zone is one of
the main differences between different types of screw of the extruder. The final region
(metering zone) is again constant in screw core size and shape throughout its length.

Solid resin usually in granule form is fed to the extruder through a hopper. The plastic
is fed forward by the rotating screw and melts by the combination of heat from the
heated barrel and by the friction created by the turning of the screw. The molten
polymer moves forward and fed into a die that starts to create a shape typical of the
final product. A die with a long thin slit can give a cast film or a sheet. A similar die
can be used for extrusion coating. Molten polymer may also be made to come out as
a small tube and that can be the basis for blown film manufacture. Molten polymers
may also be prepared in an extruder to be forced into a mould as in injection
moulding.
10.1.1.1.1.Extruding the sheet
Usually extruded, comparatively thick sheet of the starting material for plastic is
thermoforming. The mold plastic is made in an extruder and is solidified into a
continuous sheet by the use of large water cooled rollers. For thermoforming purpose
sheet of 1mm thick is usually rolled up.

10.1.1.1.2.Co-extruding the sheet

Simultaneous extrusion of more than one plastic through two different dies or through
a die having two different sections having two slits. The semi-solid continuous sheets
of plastic sheets are combined using pinch rollers to form a single sheet.

10.1.1.2.Thermoforming
Separate processes of extrusion of sheets and thermoforming is generally more
practical and is more usual. Thermo forming uses a combination of heat to soften a
plastic sheet and a pressure difference to make the softened sheet to take up the
required shape. The sheet is usually heated by radiant heat and taken over the
mould with very small holes connected to vacuum when the soft sheet takes up the
shape of the mould. Then it is cut to size. Thermoforming can also be done on the
packaging line to prepare rigid or semi rigid containers.

10.1.1.3.Injection Moulding
Injection moulding is widely used for making thick walled plastic containers such as
plastic buckets, crates and bottles.
Most injection moulding machines how use extrusion process to prepare molten
plastic resin for injection. Polymer granules are melted and forced into a (sometimes
additional hydraulic pressure is used) premade mould. This is combined with a
reciprocating movement so that while one shot of plastic is solidifying in the mould,
next metered amount of polymer is being injected.

10.1.1.4.Blow moulding
Containers made by thermoforming and injection moulding should be able to be
removed from the mould easily and hence the shape of container should have a wide
opening. Blow moulding enables a bottle to be made with a narrower neck than the
main part of the body. There are many similarities between making glass bottles and
making plastic bottles. A small container with approximate shape of final product
made first by injection moulding with complete neck finish which is called parison.
The parison (other than the neck portion) is then heated till the plastic becomes soft,
and it is taken into a mould and blown till the plastic takes the shape of the mould
and then cooled. The two halves of the mould are separated to remove the bottle.
Most blow moulded bottle has a distinct visible vertical mark where two halves of the
mould meets.
10.1.2.Flexible packaging from plastics
Flexible packaging can be considered as two dimensional packaging. The material
can be supplied as reels and on the packaging machines; they are unwound and
surround the product, cut and sealed to make the final pack (as in form fill seal
machines). Plastic materials can also be made into packages like bags, pouches and
sacks. These are filled with products and final closure is made by heat sealing which
is important to give protective quality to the packages. Some methods to make
flexible packaging are described below.

10.1.2.1.Film blowing
Blowing is one of the two methods used for making thin films. In this method, molten
plastic is extruded by the screw extruder (described earlier) into a circular die (slit in
the shape of a circle). As soon as the film comes out of the die as a tubing, it is blown
into a bubble. As the bubble is hauled up, it is cooled and finally wound on reels as a
lay flat tube.

The ratio of final diameter of the tube to diameter of the die is important. For most
common application, the ratio of 2:1 is used. Higher blow up ratios are used in
making shrink wrap films as higher the ratio the more are the stresses incorporated.
They get released when heated and hence results in more film shrinkage.

10.1.2.2.Solvent casting
Solvent casting is now used to make only specialized films. In this method polymer
resin is mixed together with plasticizer and other additive and then dissolved in a
solvent or combination of solvents. The solution is then cast on to a smooth, moving
endless metal belt. The cast solution is heated to vaporize the volatile solvent leaving
the plastic as a continuous film, which is stripped away from metal belt. Even though
most the solvents are recovered, the process is expensive.

10.1.2.3.Calendaring
Certain plastic resins, especially PVC are made into thicker sheets rather than thin
gauges by hot calendaring. The resin is processed on a calendar stack that usually
has be polished, heated large rolls typically assembled in an L shape. The rolls are
rigidly mounted and can be adjusted to have precisely metered gaps. Softened
plastic is forced between the gaps or nips between the adjacent rotating rolls. This
process converts the plastic into a continuous sheet that is hauled off and wound up.

10.1.2.4.Coating of plastics
Film is usually coated usually on one side but sometimes on both sides. This is done
to impart specific properties to the basic films such as improving barrier properties on
heat sealing properties. Different methods such as metallization, roller coating of
water dispersion of PVDC or solvent lacquer, extrusion coating are adapted when
various materials are to be applied on the film as a thin coat.

10.1.2.5.Vacuum metalizing
Plastics such as PP, PET (usually oriented) are coated on one side and sometimes
on both sides with a very thin layer of metal usually aluminium. The metalizing
operation takes place completely in a very low pressure vacuum chamber, molten
aluminium is heated and under low pressure vaporizes and condenses on to moving
web of the film as a thin continuous layer.
By this method the plastic gets an attractive metallic appearance and also improves
barrier properties towards gases, water vapour and flavours.

10.1.2.6.Dispersion and lacquer coating

Coatings may be done on films by using volatile liquid to carry the coating. Dispersion
coating uses water as the volatile medium and this dispersion contains about 50% of
the solid polymer dispersed in it giving a milky appearance similar to rubber latex. In
lacquer coating resins are dissolved in a solvent or combination of solvents to
prepare a more viscous free flowing clear liquid. Usually fairly low viscosity,
dispersion or lacquer solutions are used for coating.
In dispersion coating, the liquid is roller coated usually on to one side of the film and
the excess is metered off by a controlled air jet called air knife or a wire wound roll
called Meyer rod. Excess dispersion falls back into a reservoir and is re-circulated.
Finally the wet film is dried by hot air. Solvent coating or lacquer coating is done in a
similar manner.
Polypropylene, polyester and Nylon films are usually coated with PVDL and used in
packaging. Low viscosity waxes and later high viscosity modified waxes (hot melts)
are widely used as coating in flexible packaging, paper and paper board.

10.1.2.7.Extrusion coating
A large proportion of flexible packaging materials are extrusion coated using
polyethylene with 10-50 micron thickness as the inner heat seal layer. Other ethylene
polymers such as EVA, ionomer and various polymers such as PP, PET are also
coated, e.g. PET is coated on paper board for making ovenable trays.
Extrusion coating process somewhat similar to co-extrusion process using a flat slit
die, but the main difference is that the web is being coated.
Extrusion coating can be applied to paper, paper board, foil laminate, metalized
plastic sheets provided they have sufficient heat stability.

10.1.2.8.Lamination
Laminations are combination of various plies which gives material unique properties
that are not given by a single material alone. In lamination process, adhesives are
used. One plastic material is coated with an adhesive and subsequently adhered to
another material. Laminates can be prepared by using only plastic films or plastic to
paper, or aluminium foil to plastic or metalized plastic. For water based solvent based
and solvent less laminating process, polyolefin films are surface treated on the
laminating side although wet or molten adhesive is applied during lamination process.

10.1.2.8.1.Extrusion laminating
It is done using an extrusion coating machine. The molten polymer falls between the
two webs being laminated almost at that instant, the two webs are pressed together.
The weight of the extruded laminant adhesives is typically 10-15 g/m2. The extruded
laminant may also be used for properties other than just an adhesive.

10.1.2.9.Co-extrusion
Co-extrusion is now are important means to make multiply films directly from the
individual resins in contrast to lamination that uses films previously made films by
casting or blowing or extrusion. This process is limited to only thermoplastic
materials. Many combinations of coax films are possible, but most widely used ones
are polyethylene, ethylene copolymers, PP and Nylon. In co-extrusion the individual
molten polymer layers are extruded using separate extruders and the melts are
combined either inside the die or sometimes immediately after leaving the lie. In coax
casting, the molten polymers are extruded separately and then fed into a combining
adopter, that brings the molten polymers together but it keeps its identity and flows
separately with laminar flow. The polymers in the coax films still retain thin identity,
but appear as though a monofilm, and the difference is observed only when
examined under a microscope.