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Derin Ural
Foundation Engineering
2006 SPRING
INS332E
Derin N. Ural 1
a structure is no stronger than its connections
Connections between individual structural members
Connections between structures & the ground that supports it
Example of foundation failure ;

Tower of Pisa , 6 inclination
Derin N. Ural 2
http://torre.duomo.pisa.it/
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
Foundation engineering emerged in the late 1800s
- First , load bearing masonry walls were supported on

spread footings.
- Later , steel & reinforced concrete buildings started
being built.
Less rigid ; taller & heavier Birth of Modern

structures Foundation Engineering
Derin N. Ural 3
Modern Analysis Design Construction
1. Geotechnical (soil info)

Foundations require
know how 2. Structural (member)
3. Construction (actual built)
Derin N. Ural 4
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
Design of Foundation of Structures (Bridges, Buildings, Dams)

requires knowledge on factors including :
1. The load transmitted to the foundation system from the

superstructure.
2. The requirements of the local BUILDING CODE
3. Behavior & stress related deformability of soil that will
support the foundation system
4. Geological conditions of soil.
Derin N. Ural 5
Building Codes :
-Uniform
Uniform Building Code
-Euro-
Euro-Building Code
-Turkish Building Code
Derin N. Ural 6
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
FOUNDATIONS
SHALLOW DEEP
Spread Wall
Mat Piles Caisson
Footings Footings
Depth of embedment 3 to 4 * width of Top soil layers have poor load

the foundation Derin N. Ural bearing capacity 7
SITE INVESTIGATION
PURPOSE :To obtain data and information to evaluate the following;
following;
1. To determine the type of foundation required (shallow or deep)
2. To recommend allowable load capacity of the foundation
3. Sufficient data and laboratory tests to make settlement predictions
predictions
4. Location of the ground water table (wh
(whether it is in the construction zone)
5. Information so that the identification and solution of specific construction
problems can be made ;
Bracing
Dewatering
Rock excavations
6. Identification of potential problems concerning the adjacent property.
property.
(settlements, existing damage)
7. Identification of environmental problems and their solution (sanitary
(sanitary land fill)
Derin N. Ural 8
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
SITE INVESTIGATION
Relative cost : 0.1% to 2% of cost of the project
Soil Exploration Methods

1. Boring and sampling
2. Subsurface soundings ,field (in-
(in-situ) tests
SPT
penetration tests
CPT
Inspection shafts, test pits, tunnels

Geophysical methods
Load tests
Derin N. Ural 9
SITE INVESTIGATION
MAJOR STEPS
Planning
Type of Boring Method
No and Depth of Borehole
Type and Frequency of Field Tests
Sampling Procedures
Execution
Boring
Sampling
Field Tests
Geotechnical Report
Derin N. Ural 10
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
I - BORING and SAMPLING
Drilling a hole in the ground for sampling and observations.
Location : Depends on the layout plan of the structure and shape of the
structure
Spacing : Erratic soil profile 78m

Uniform soil up to 150 m
1 storey building 23 - 30 m
Multi-
Multi-storey building 15 23 m
Highways 230 305 m
Earth dams 23 - 46 m
Residential subdivision planning 61 92 m
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Depth :
1. The borings must reach stable layer and penetrate all unsuitable layers.
2. If the structure is on deep soft soil deposit the borings must extend
extend to a
depth where consolidation affects are negligible.
3. Bedrock and boulders must be identified by approximately 3 m drilling

drilling in
rock.
4. Depth 1-2 times the least dimension of the loaded area/
5. Depth > 10 m
Derin N. Ural 12
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
IA - Boring Methods
Hand tools : Obtaining a test hole using a Pick & Shovel. Most common
Hand Augers.
Auger Borings : Flight augers act as a screw conveyor to bring the soil to the
surface.
Hollow Stem
Augers
Solid stem
Derin N. Ural 13
water + soil out water in
Wash Borings :
Water jet, mechanical energy

Jetting action of water
casing
Chopping bit , replaced by Wash pipe

sampler during sampling
Derin N. Ural 14
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Derin Ural
Rotary Drilling : Percussion Drilling :

A heavy bit (200 to 1000 kg) is
Common in rock formations, alternately raised and dropped to
crush and grind soil.
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IB - Sampling
Boring operations are stopped frequently (at 1,5 or 2,0 m intervals) for sampling.
SAMPLES
Disturbed Undisturbed
(For soil classification) (For strength and deformation)
Derin N. Ural 16
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
COMMON METHODS FOR SAMPLING - (SPT)
1) Sampling by Standard Split Spoon :
Once the borehole is advanced to a desired depth, the drilling tools are removed.
The split spoon sampler is attached to the drill rod & lowered to the bottom of
the borehole. The sampler is driven into the soil with hammer blows.
Drill rod
5'' Coupling or Head
24'' Split Barrel
Driving Shoe
3''
2''
Derin N. Ural 17
The number of blows

Hammer required for the driving
(623 N) 30'=76 cm the sampler through
Anvil three 66 intervals is
recorded . The sum of
the number of blows for
the last two 6'
6' intervals
is referred as the
standard penetration
number, (N). After
driving is completed, the
6''=15cm soil sample inside split
tube is collected &
Total 18=45cm transported to the
laboratory. Split spoon
samples are usually
taken at 1,5 m intervals.
Derin N. Ural 18
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
2) Sampling by Thin Wall Tube :
Unlike the standard split

Drill rod spoon, the thin wall
tube is attached to the
end of the drill rod, once
1.875 the desired depth is
Thin walled tube
attained and lowered
hydraulically. The
sampler with soil is then
sealed & taken to the
2' or 3 most common lab.
Derin N. Ural 19
2) Sampling by Piston Sampler :

Piston samplers are used when "Highly
undisturbed" soil samples are needed.
The cost is higher than the first two
methods. The piston is lowered
hydraulically
Derin N. Ural 20
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
SAMPLE DISTURBANCE
The degree of disturbance of the soil sample collected can be expressed

by the Area Ratio (Ar) :
D02 Di2
Ar (0 0 ) = 100
Di2
Where :
D0 :outside diameter of sampler
Di :inside diameter of sampler
A soil sample can be considered `undisturbed` if Ar10%.
Derin N. Ural 21
SAMPLE DISTURBANCE
Disturbed sample from standard split spoon can be used for laboratory
tests including :
Grain size distribution

Liquid limit Soil classification
Plastic limit
Shrinkage limit
Undisturbed samples are required for the following tests :
Consolidation
Triaxial compression Strength & Deformation
Unconfined compression
Derin N. Ural 22
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
The standard penetration test may be stopped if :
50 blows are required for any 6
6 penetration,
Total 100 blows are obtained,
10 successive blows produce no tip advancement.
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Correction of N for overburden pressure
One must incorporate the effect of the soil in overlying layers of the
soil of interest . Therefore the following correction procedure is used :
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N = C N N F = 0,77 N F log ( for 0,25 ton / ft 2 )

Where :
N: corrected SPT #
NF: field SPT #
CN: correction factor
20
For SI Units N = 0,77 N F log ( for 23,9 kN / m 2 )
0, 0105
Unit of overburden pressure` : kN/
kN/m2. Example!
Example!
Derin N. Ural 24
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
Correlations for Standard Penetration Resistances ( N,N
N,N)
Compressive
N Consistency
strength , qu (kPa)
02 Very soft 0 - 25
For cohesive soils
24 Soft 25 50
48 Medium 50 100
8 16 Stiff 100 200
16 32 Very stiff 200 400
>32 hard >400
Derin N. Ural 25
Correlations for Standard Penetration Resistances ( N,N
N,N)
N Dr (%) Consistency
For cohesionless soils
04 0 15 Very loose
4 10 15 35 Loose
10 30 35 65 Medium
30 50 65 85 Dense
>50 85 - 100 Very dense
Derin N. Ural 26
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
Correlations for Standard Penetration Resistances ( N,N)
N,N)
Friction Angle
For cohesionless soils
N'
()
05 26 - 30
5 10 28 35
10 30 35 42
30 50 38 46
Derin N. Ural 27
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
Soil Exploration
Methods
CONE PENETRATION TEST
The end resistance of the cone at any depth called the

cone penetration resistance is (qc) measured. qc is the
force required to advance the cone divided by the end area.
Unlike the SPT, soil samples cannot be recovered during
the CPT.
A pplicable N ot A pplicable
Soft clays Very stiff clays
Fine to medium course Hard clays
sands
gra vels
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
Types of cones:
Mechanical Cone (Dutch Cone - reading every 200 mm)
Electrical Cone (constant readings)
Electrical Piezocone
Friction Ratio :
FR= qS/qc *100 (%)
FR< 1% :sands,
FR> 5% :clays
Data collected during electrical CPT

qC qS FR u
(Mpa) (kPa) (%) (kPa)
Note: qC can be correlated to : ,Dr ,CU, N 4
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
THE PRESSUREMETER TEST
The Pressuremeter test is an in-situ test developed by

Menard in 1956. Applicable for : soft clay , fine to
medium sands. The device consists of three parts(top,
cell and bottom) as shown below:
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
The Pressuremeter is inserted into the borehole and the top

and bottom guard cells are expanded into the soil. The middle
cell is used to obtain the volume versus cell pressure.
Measuring
Cell
Zone 2
Volume (V)
Pseudo Zone 1: Soil pushed back to
Elastic
Zone 1
zone Zone 3
initial state
Reloading
V Plastic Zone Zone 2: Pseudo elastic, V vs P
V0 is linear
P Zone3: Plastic Zone
p0 Measuring
Cell Pressure (p) 7
For Zone 2 :
E=2(1+)V0 p/V
where E : Youngs Modulus of soil

: Poissons ratio
V0: volume corresponding to beginning
of zone 2 at p0
p/ V = 1 / (slope of line in zone 2)
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Derin Ural
Also, the relationship between E and G is given by
E=2(1+)G G=V0 p/ V
Pressuremeter test results can also be used to determine the at

rest earth pressure coefficient:
K0=p0/
Note:In France, shallow and deep foundation design is all based
on pressuremeter tests.
FIELD VANE TEST
This in-situ test is used to determine the undrained shear

strength of soft, fine grained clays (similar to lab vane test).
This test is performed every 0.75 to 1 m of depth.
T = CU ( D2 H/2 + a D3/4)
where H/D = 2
2/3 : uniform end shear

a= 3/5 : parabolic end shear
1/2 : triangular end shear
10
T : N-m
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
11
FIELD VANE TEST

When ; H/D= 2 & a=2/3
CU = 0.2728 T/D3
Also; (Cu)design= (Cu)field
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0 120 12
PI %
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
PLATE LOAD TEST
Most reliable way to obtain the ultimate bearing capacity

at a site is to perform a load test.
13
PLATE LOAD TEST

Procedure
1) Piles should be driven first, to avoid excess vibration &

loosening of soil in excavation area.
2) Excavate hole to depth the test is to be performed.

Test hole depth > 4B
3) A load is placed on the plate (usually steel) and settlements

are recorded from a gauge. Load increments 1/5 bearing
capacity of soil or 1/10 estimated failure load. Time of
loading 1 hr & should be same duration for all increments.
4) Test should continue until settlement = 25 mm or,

until capacity of testing apparatus is reached. 14
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
PLATE LOAD TEST

Load (ksf) Load
0 5 10
0
lim Hard/dense
1 soils
Settlement
(in.) 2 Settlement Loose/soft
soils
If H = 1 in. lim 1/2 load corresponding

qult= 9,9 ksf
failure to 10 mm settlement
Note: Plate load test results do not include effects of CONSOLIDATION

15
16
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Derin Ural
17
PLATE LOAD TEST
For Cohesive Soils Cohesionless Soils
qfoundation= qtest qfoundation= qtest(Bfound/Bplate)
(only if Bfound/Bplate 3 )
Sfound= Stest (Bf /Bp) Sfound=St Bf(Bp+0,3) 2
Bp(Bf+0,3)
18
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
PLATE LOAD TEST
Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction , ks :

Used to obtain E: when
modelling soil as elastic
Load springs (Winkler)
q
(use secant) : ks= q / s

[units: kg/cm3,kN/m3]
Settlement
s
EI d4y/dx4= - kBy
19
PLATE LOAD TEST

General relationship:
kS = C1(1+ 2d/b)+C2/b
where; C1, C2 : soil constants

d : depth of test
b : width of plate
Run 2 tests with varying plate size & and depth :

*KNOWN :(k1,d1,b1) & (k2,d2,b2)
*SOLVE : C1,C2
if c = 0 or = 0 ; one test is enough !

20
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Useful in ground investigation in reconnaissance stage

Supplementary method (not suitable for all soils)
Capable of
estimating depth to bedrock
estimating depth to water table
filling in detail between borehole
Less cost than other in-situ tests
21
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
1) Seismic Refraction Method:
Seismic waves have different velocities in different types
of soil. Waves are generated either by explosives, or striking
a metal plate with a hammer (geophone & seismograph ).
Two types of stress waves:
P Waves : plane waves

200 m/s in sands to 2500 m/s in clays
S Waves : shear waves
22
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Seismic Refraction Method - continued:
Principle:
A) Longitudinal waves travel in straight lines in a
medium of constant density.
B) Waves are reflected when they come in contact with

soil strata of different density.
C) Determine seismic velocities & compare with known

values.
23
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Seismic Refraction Method - continued:

P-wave velocity:
p= E /(/g) * (1-)/((1-2)(1+ )) : TR<TS
First arrival time to detectors are determined :
Vsoil= L0 / T0
Vrock= (L3-L1) / (T3-T1)
24
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Derin Ural
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
2) Electrical Resistivity Method:

Differences in electrical resistance of different soil types.
Method
* Place 4 electrodes with equal spacing A.

* Apply a direct current to outer electrodes I.
* Measure potential drop in inner electrode.
25
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
I
E
Electrodes Current flows & creates

electrical field in soil
A A A
The resistivity of soil is determined by:
= 2AV/I
V:Voltage drop
26
copyright 2006
Derin Ural
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
3) Cross Hole Seismic Survey:

Two holes are drilled a distance, L, apart. A vertical impulse
is created at the bottom of one of the boreholes by an
impulse. The shear waves generated are recorded by a
transducer at the other borehole.
Method
Shear wave velocity: Vs = L / t
Shear modulus : G=Vs 2 / g
27
SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT
Scope
Description of Structure
Description of Location of Site
Geological Setting
Detailed Field Exploration
Sub-soil Conditions
Water table conditions
Foundation recommendations
Conclusions and limitations 28
copyright 2006

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Derin Ural

Connections between structures & the ground that supports it

Example of foundation failure ;

Foundation engineering emerged in the late 1800s

- First , load bearing masonry walls were supported on

Less rigid ; taller & heavier Birth of Modern

Modern Analysis Design Construction

1. Geotechnical (soil info)

Design of Foundation of Structures (Bridges, Buildings, Dams)

1. The load transmitted to the foundation system from the

-Turkish Building Code

Depth of embedment 3 to 4 * width of Top soil layers have poor load

Relative cost : 0.1% to 2% of cost of the project

Soil Exploration Methods

Inspection shafts, test pits, tunnels

Spacing : Erratic soil profile 78m

3. Bedrock and boulders must be identified by approximately 3 m drilling

4. Depth 1-2 times the least dimension of the loaded area/

Water jet, mechanical energy

Chopping bit , replaced by Wash pipe

Rotary Drilling : Percussion Drilling :

1) Sampling by Standard Split Spoon :

5'' Coupling or Head

24'' Split Barrel

The number of blows

2) Sampling by Thin Wall Tube :

Unlike the standard split

2) Sampling by Piston Sampler :

The degree of disturbance of the soil sample collected can be expressed

A soil sample can be considered `undisturbed` if Ar10%.

Grain size distribution

Undisturbed samples are required for the following tests :

CONE PENETRATION TEST

The end resistance of the cone at any depth called the

CONE PENETRATION TEST

CONE PENETRATION TEST

Data collected during electrical CPT

Note: qC can be correlated to : ,Dr ,CU, N 4

THE PRESSUREMETER TEST

The Pressuremeter test is an in-situ test developed by

THE PRESSUREMETER TEST

The Pressuremeter is inserted into the borehole and the top

THE PRESSUREMETER TEST

where E : Youngs Modulus of soil

p/ V = 1 / (slope of line in zone 2)

THE PRESSUREMETER TEST

Also, the relationship between E and G is given by

Pressuremeter test results can also be used to determine the at

FIELD VANE TEST

This in-situ test is used to determine the undrained shear

2/3 : uniform end shear

FIELD VANE TEST

Also; (Cu)design= (Cu)field

PLATE LOAD TEST

Most reliable way to obtain the ultimate bearing capacity

PLATE LOAD TEST

1) Piles should be driven first, to avoid excess vibration &

2) Excavate hole to depth the test is to be performed.

3) A load is placed on the plate (usually steel) and settlements

4) Test should continue until settlement = 25 mm or,

PLATE LOAD TEST

If H = 1 in. lim 1/2 load corresponding

Note: Plate load test results do not include effects of CONSOLIDATION