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I will like to express my thanks of gratitude to Mr. Raja Banerjee who have
helped me to learn and study this topic from the very first day of my summer
training. I will also like to thank my H.O.D. Prof. Malay Kanti Naskar who
have helped me and have also advices me to take REFRIGERATION and AIR
CONDITIONING as my summer training topic.
I will also like to thank the director and the principal of my college that they
have organized this training program and have also helped us a lot to take
this training program. Special thanks to my parents and my friends for their
continuous support and help. Because of them I have been able to complete
this training successfully. Last but not the least; I will like to thank the whole
authority of the NSIC, Howrah as they have provided their machineries and
their valuable time for our training purpose.
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: BASIC LAWS:
The very basic law of refrigeration and air conditioning comes from the
statement given by Clausius in accordance to second law of
thermodynamics. According to that statement It is impossible to deliver heat
from sink to source without giving some work done to the system.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning system is only the application of that law.
There is a very thin line of difference in between a Heat Pump and one
Refrigeration Unit as they both have been constructed by not violating the
Clausius statement. The coefficient of performance is more in case of a Heat
Pump than a Refrigeration Unit working under same temperature difference.
They are different in respect of the purpose of use. Refrigeration unit is used
to cool down the system or to cool down some confined space by removing
heat from it and by giving away heat to the ambient where as heat pump is
used to heat that same confined space by adding heat into it from the
ambient. There is also one basic fundamental cycle is used to describe and
operate the refrigeration unit i.e. Simple Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Cycle and sometimes another cycle known as Simple Vapor Absorption
Refrigeration System is also used to operate the refrigeration plant. This
cycle is also used to operate the Air Conditioning System. The diagram given
below is clearly stating the working principle of the heat pump as well as the
working principle of the refrigeration system.
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: REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENTS:
COMPRESSOR: -
Compressor is said to be the heart of the refrigeration system where the overall
compression process is being done. The temperature of refrigerant is being
increased to a certain level so that adequate amount of heat can be removed via
condenser. There are various kinds of compressors are there which are as
follows:-
a) Reciprocating Compressor
b) Rotary Compressor
c) Scroll Compressor
d) Centrifugal Compressor
used. All these kinds of compressors are generally provided with mechanical
and electrical safety trips.
CONDENSER:-
coming inside and outside of it via various lines. It is an image of the shell
and tube type condenser.
Evaporator:-
fin system there which is made of aluminum. The image given below is of
the evaporator coils which are used for the exchanging heat.
EXPANSION VALVE:-
Expansion valves, in the simple vapor compression system are used for the
isenthalpic expansion process and in this process the net work done is zero
always. Generally capillary tubes are used as an expansion device where a
little amount of refrigerant is need to be expanded but if the cooling
required is very high and the amount of refrigerant used is also very high
then expansion valves are used to meet the level of exact cooling required.
Expansion valves are sometimes self-operated which can be operated
electronically by using some kind of circuits and all.
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: REFRIGERANTS:
For example, R-134a has 2 carbon atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 4 fluorine
atoms, an empirical formula of tetrafluoroethane. The "a" suffix indicates
that the isomer is unbalanced by one atom, giving 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane.
R-134 (without the "a" suffix) would have a molecular structure of 1,1,2,2-
Tetrafluoroethanea compound not especially effective as a refrigerant.
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The same numbers are used with an R- prefix for generic refrigerants, with a
"Propellant" prefix (e.g., "Propellant 12") for the same chemical used as a
propellant for an aerosol spray, and with trade names for the compounds,
such as "Freon 12". Recently, a practice of using HFC- for
hydrofluorocarbons, CFC- for chlorofluorocarbons, and HCFC- for
hydrochlorofluorocarbons has arisen, because of the regulatory differences
among these groups.
Air has been used for residential, automobile, and turbine-powered aircraft
air-conditioning and/or cooling. The reason why air is not more widely used
as a general-purpose refrigerant is because there is no change of phase, and
is therefore too inefficient to be practical in most applications. It has been
suggested that with suitable compression and expansion technology, air can
be a practical (albeit not the most efficient) refrigerant, free of the possibility
of environmental contamination or damage, and almost completely harmless
to plants and animals. An explosion could result from refrigerant-type
compressor lubricating oils being compressed together with the air. Air is so
frequently used as a coolant that air cooling is seldom mentioned in this
context. Due to the low boiling point of its constituents, air is less often used
as a refrigerant. Water - natural, non toxic, low cost, environmentally
friendly, and widely available, is widely used in water cooling, and if
evaporated in the process may be called a "refrigerant". Water also
commonly serves as a heat transfer and storage material and in large systems
it may actually fill all of these roles. The simplest and lowest cost open-cycle
cooling systems, known as swamp coolers in the south-west United States,
do not even need power for a compressor, merely a blower fan - humidified
air is simply vented to the living space. Portable free standing units can be
obtained at discount stores for less than $200US. However, drawbacks of
these systems, if improperly implemented are multiple and severe.The total
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cooling power of the unit is limited by the fact that neither coolant nor air
can be recirculated. If the cooling unit does not have a supply of fresh dry air
and the waste air is not effectively vented, stagnant humid air will make the
space more uncomfortable than if it were merely ventilated. An additional
limitation of such systems would be that if the air outside is already humid,
cooling power is severely limited. This is why such units are not found in
areas of frequent and high humidity, such as the south-east United States.
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: PARTS IDENTIFICATION:
: EXPLANATION OF PARTS:
The domestic refrigerator is one found in almost all the homes for storing
food, vegetables, fruits, beverages, and much more. This article describes the
important parts of the domestic refrigerator and also their working. The
parts of domestic refrigerator can be categorized into two categories:
internal and external. Let see these in details along with their images.
Parts of the Domestic Refrigerator
The internal parts of the refrigerator are ones that carry out actual working
of the refrigerator. Some of the internal parts are located at the back of the
refrigerator, and some inside the main compartment of the refrigerator.
Some internal parts of the domestic refrigerator are (please refer the figure
above):
1) Refrigerant: The refrigerant flows through all the internal parts of the
refrigerator. It is the refrigerant that carries out the cooling effect in the
evaporator. It absorbs the heat from the substance to be cooled in the
evaporator (chiller or freezer) and throws it to the atmosphere via
condenser. The refrigerant keeps on recirculating through all the internal
parts of the refrigerator in cycle.
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3) Condenser: The condenser is the thin coil of copper tubing located at the
back of the refrigerator. The refrigerant from the compressor enters the
condenser where it is cooled by the atmospheric air thus losing heat
absorbed by it in the evaporator and the compressor. To increase the heat
transfer rate of the condenser, it is finned externally.
The refrigerant leaving the condenser enters the expansion devise, which is
the capillary tube in case of the domestic refrigerators. The capillary is the
thin copper tubing made up of number of turns of the copper coil. When the
refrigerant is passed through the capillary its pressure and temperature
drops down suddenly.
electricity to the bulb and it starts, while when the door is closed the light
from the bulb stops. This helps in starting the internal bulb only when
required.
Freezer
-Compressing equipment: Compressor, Oil
-Condensing equipment: Condenser
-Cooling equipment: Capillary tube, Evaporator
-Refrigerant : R12(CFC), R134a(CFC FREE)
-Auxiliary equipment: Suction pipe, Drier, Drain condenser, Hot line
Power equipment
-FAN MOTOR for cool air circulation
-FAN MOTOR for condensation
Cabinet
-Main body, door
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-Outter case
-Inner case, Door liner
-Insulation material
Defrosting equipment
-Defroster: Timer, Defroster thermostat, Heater
-Safety equipment: Temperature fuse
Safety equipment
-Current fuse
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: REFRIGERATOR ACCESSORIES:
Overload Protector: -
1) Define:-
The overload protector is attached to the compressor and protects the motor
by opening the circuit to the motor if the temperature rises and activating
the bimetal strip in the OLP.
When the current flows to the compressor motor, the Bimetal works by
heating the heater inside the OLP, the OLP protects the motor by cutting off
the current flowing through the motor.
2) Role:-
The OLP is attached to the sealed compressor for the refrigerator. It prevents
the motor coil from being started in the compressor.
For normal operation of the OLP, do not turn the adjustment screw of the
OLP in any way.
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COMPOSITION:-
ROLE:-
The PTC is attached to the sealed compressor and is used for starting the
compressor motor. The compressor is a single phase induction motor. For
starting operation PTC allows current flow to both the start winding and
main winding.
It requires approximately five minutes for the pressure to equalize before the
compressor can restart. The PTC device generates heat during operation.
Therefore it must be cool before the compressor can restart.
If the compressor attempts to restart before the PTC device is cooled, the
PTC device will allow the current to flow only to the main winding. The OLP
will open because of the over current condition. This same process will
continue when the compressor attempts to restart until the PTC device is
cooled. The correct OLP must be properly attached to prevent damage to the
compressor. Parts may appear physically identical but could have different
electrical ratings. Replace the parts by part number and model number.
: TYPE OF AIR-CONDITIONERS:
WINDOW AC:-
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CENTRAL AC:-
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: TYPES OF REFRIGERATORS:
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: PIPE BENDING:
Tube bending is the umbrella term for metal forming processes used to
permanently form pipes or tubing. One has to differentiate between form-
bound and freeform-bending procedures, as well as between heat supported
and cold forming procedures.
The process of tube bending involves using mechanical force to push stock
material pipe or tubing against a die, forcing the pipe or tube to conform to
the shape of the die. Often, stock tubing is held firmly in place while the end
is rotated and rolled around the die. Other forms of processing including
pushing stock through rollers that bend it into a simple curve.[2] For some
tube bending processing, a mandrel is placed inside the tube to prevent
collapsing. The tube is also held in tension by a wiper die to prevent any
creasing during stress. A wiper die is usually made of a softer alloy i.e.
aluminum, brass to avoid scratching or damaging the material being bent.
Much of the tooling is made of hardened steel or tool steel to maintain and
prolong the tools life. However wherever there is a concern of scratching or
gouging the work piece, a softer material such as aluminum or bronze is
utilized. For example, the clamping block, rotating form block and pressure
die are often formed from the hardened steel because the tubing is not
moving past these parts of the machine. On the other hand, the pressure die
and the wiping die are formed from aluminum or bronze to maintain the
shape and surface of the work piece as it slides by.Pipe bending machines are
typically human powered, pneumatic powered, hydraulic assisted, hydraulic
driven or electric servomotor.
Compression bending
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Probably will be the first bending process used on cold pipes and tubing. In
this process a die in the shape of the bend is pressed against the pipe forcing
the pipe to fit the shape of the bend. Because the pipe is not supported
internally there is some deformation of the shape of the pipe giving an oval
cross section. This process is used where a consistent cross section of the
pipe is not required. Although a single die can produce various shapes, it
only works for one size tube and radius. Rotary draw bending
Rotary draw benders are the most popular machines for use in bending tube,
pipe and solids for applications like: handrails, frames, motor vehicle roll
cages, handles, lines and much more. Rotary draw benders create
aesthetically pleasing bends when the right tooling is matched to the
application. CNC rotary draw bending machines can be very complex and
use sophisticated tooling to produce severe bends with high quality
requirements. The complete tooling is required only for high-precision
bending of difficult-to-bend tubes with relatively large OD/t
(diameter/thickness) ratio and relatively small ratio between the mean
bending radius Rm and OD.[3] The use of axial boosting either on the tube
free end or on the pressure die is useful to prevent excessive thinning and
collapse of the extrados of the tube. The mandrel, with or without ball with
spherical links, is mostly used to prevent wrinkles and ovalization. For
relatively easy bending processes (that is, as the difficulty factor BF
decreases), the tooling can be progressively simplified, eliminating the need
for the axial assist, the mandrel, and the wiper die (which mostly prevents
wrinkling). Furthermore, in some particular cases, the standard tooling must
be modified in order to meet specific requirements of the products.
Roll bending
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During the roll bending process the pipe, extrusion, or solid is passed
through a series of rollers (typically 3) that apply pressure to the pipe
gradually changing the bend radius in the pipe. The pyramid style roll
benders have one moving roll, usually the top roll. Double pinch type roll
benders have two adjustable rolls, usually the bottom rolls, and a fixed top
roll. This method of bending causes very little deformation in the cross
section of the pipe. This process is suited to producing coils of pipe as well as
long gentle bends like those used in truss systems.
The Three-Roll Push Bending (TRPB) is the most commonly used freeform-
bending process to manufacture bending geometries consisting of several
plane bending curves. Nevertheless, a 3D-shaping is possible. The profile is
guided between bending-roll and supporting-roll(s), while being pushed
through the tools. The position of the forming-roll defines the bending
radius. The bending point is the tangent-point between tube and bending-
roll. To change the bending plane, the pusher rotates the tube around its
longitudinal axis. Generally, a TRPB tool kit can be applied on a
conventional rotary draw bending machine. The process is very flexible since
with a unique tool set, several bending radii values Rm can be obtained,
although the geometrical precision of the process is not comparable to rotary
draw bending. Bending contours defined as spline- or polynomial-functions
can be manufactured.
Three roll bending of tubes and open profiles can also be performed with
simpler machines, often semi-automatic and non CNC controlled, able to
feed the tube into the bending zone by friction. These machines have often a
vertical layout, i.e. the three rolls lie on a vertical plane.
Heat-induction
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An induction coil is placed around a small section of the pipe at the bend
point. It is then heated to between 800 and 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (430
and 1,200 C). While the pipe is hot, pressure is placed on the pipe to bend it.
The pipe is then quenched with either air or water spray. Heat-Induction
bending is used on large pipes such as freeway signs, power plants, and
petroleum pipe lines.
Sand-packing/hot-slab forming
In the sand packing process the pipe is filled with fine sand and the ends are
capped. The filled pipe is heated in a furnace to 1,600 F (870 C) or higher.
Then it is placed on a slab with pins set in it, and bent around the pins using
a winch, crane, or some other mechanical force. The sand in the pipe
minimizes distortion in the pipe cross section.
Bending springs
These are strong but flexible springs inserted into a pipe to support the pipe
walls during manual bending. They have diameters only slightly less than the
internal diameter of the pipe to be bent. They are only suitable for bending
15-and-22 mm (0.6-and-0.9 in) soft copper pipe (typically used in household
plumbing) or PVC pipe.The spring is pushed into the pipe until its center is
roughly where the bend is to be. A length of flexible wire can be attached to
the end of the spring to facilitate its removal. The pipe is generally held
against the flexed knee, and the ends of the pipe are pulled up to create the
bend. To make it easier to retrieve the spring from the pipe, it is a good idea
to bend the pipe slightly more than required, and then slacken it off a little.
They are less cumbersome than rotary benders, but are not suitable for
bending short lengths of piping when it is difficult to get the required
leverage on the pipe ends. Bending springs for smaller diameter pipes
(10mm copper pipe) slide over the pipe instead of inside.
Flare fittings are a type of compression fitting used with metal tubing,
usually soft steel, ductile (soft) copper and aluminum, though other
materials are also used. Tube flaring is considered to be a type of forging
operation, and is usually a cold working procedure. During assembly, a flare
nut is used to secure the flared tubing's tapered end to the also tapered
fitting, producing a pressure-resistant, leak-tight seal. Flared connections
offer a high degree of long-term reliability and for this reason are often used
in mission-critical and inaccessible locations. The tool used to flare tubing
consists of a die that grips the tube and a mandrel that is forced into the end
of the tube to form the flare by cold working. The most common flare fitting
standards in use today are the 45-degree SAE style, and the 37-degree AN
style, also used with the JIC system. The AN/JIC style generally has a higher
pressure rating for a given size tubing. SAE and AN/JIC fittings are
completely incompatible due to the different flare angle. Further, AN fittings
(or those complying with subsequent standards) and JIC fittings are not
interchangeable for design-controlled applications due to differing quality
standards. The refrigeration and air conditioning industry usually uses 45
flare connections while hydraulic hoses are usually 37-1/2 flare connections.
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Flared fittings are appropriate alternatives to solder-type joints when the use
of an open flame is either not desired or impractical. Copper tube used for
propane, LP, or natural gas may use flared brass fittings of single 45-flare
type, according to NFPA 54/ANSI. Z223.1 National Fuel Gas Code. The
copper tube types used for water service applications commonly uses a flare
to iron pipe connection when connecting to the main or the meter. Many
plumbing codes, towns, and water companies require type L copper tubing
or HDPE pipe in order to provide water service. All National Model Codes
permit the use of flare fitting joints, however, the authority having
jurisdiction (AHJ) should be consulted to determine acceptance for a specific
application. Flared connectors should not be confused with compression
connectors, with which they are generally not interchangeable. Flared
connectors lack a compression ring, but do use a threaded nut. A special
flaring tool is used to enlarge tubing into a tapered "bellmouth" shape that
matches the tapered projecting conical shape of the flare fitting. The flare
nut, which has previously been installed over the tubing, is then tightened
onto the fitting. Fittings are typically made of brass or plastic, but stainless
steel or other materials may be used. Flare connections are a labor-intensive
method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the course of
many years. Flared fittings are sometimes thought to be more secure against
leaks and sudden failures, and are often preferred for safety-critical
connections, such as in hydraulic brake systems.
: SWAGING:
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Rotary swaging
Rotary swaging process is usually a cold working process, used to reduce the
diameter, produce a taper, or add a point to a round workpiece. It can also
impart internal shapes in hollow workpieces through the use of a mandrel
(the shape must have a constant cross-section). Swaging a bearing into a
housing means either flaring its groove's lips onto the chamfer of the
housing, or flaring the housing's material over the edge of the bearing. The
flaring is done with a pair of rolls that travel around the hole and are fed
down into the part, deforming the metal in a controlled, predicted way.
Grease is often used to lubricate this swaging process, which is also called
roller swaging. A swaging machine works by using two or four split dies
which separate and close up to 2000 times a minute. This action is achieved
by mounting the dies into the machine's spindle which is rotated by a motor.
The spindle is mounted inside a cage containing rollers (looks like a roller
bearing). The rollers are larger than the cage so as the spindle spins the dies
are pushed out to ride on the cage by centrifugal force, as the dies cross over
the rollers they push the dies together because of their larger size. On a four-
die machine, the number of rollers cause all dies to close at a time; if the
number of rollers do not cause all pairs of dies to close at the same time then
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: BRAZING:
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Braze alloy is generally available as rod, ribbon, powder, paste, cream, wire
and preforms (such as stamped washers). Depending on the application, the
filler material can be pre-placed at the desired location or applied during the
heating cycle. For manual brazing, wire and rod forms are generally used as
they are the easiest to apply while heating. In the case of furnace brazing,
alloy is usually placed beforehand since the process is usually highly
automated. Some of the more common types of filler metals used are
Aluminum-silicon
Copper
Copper-silver
Copper-zinc (brass)
Copper-tin (bronze)
Gold-silver
Nickel alloy
Silver[1][6]
Amorphous brazing foil using nickel, iron, copper, silicon, boron,
phosphorus, etc
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