Diodes - Online Notes

8/18/2005 The Ideal Diode Circuit Analysis Guide.
doc 1/4
The Ideal Diode

Circuit Analysis Guide
Follow these easy steps to successfully analyze a circuit
containing one or more ideal diodes !
Step 1: ASSUME a bias state for each ideal diode.
In other words, GUESS !!
Either,
a) ASSUME an ideal diode is forward biased, or
b) ASSUME it is reversed biased.
Step 2: ENFORCE the equality condition consistent with your

assumption.
a) If you assume an ideal diode is f.b., then ENFORCE the

equality:
vDi = 0
HOW ? By replacing the ideal diode with a short

circuit!
Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2005 The Ideal Diode Circuit Analysis Guide.doc 2/4
b) If you assumed an ideal diode was r.b., then ENFORCE

the condition that:
iDi = 0
HOW ? By replacing the ideal diode with an open

circuit.
IMPORTANT !!! Retain the same current and voltage

definitions when you replace the ideal diode!
If, then, or
+ + +
iDi vDi iDi = 0 vDi iDi vDi = 0

Step 3: ANALYZE the circuit.
After the all ideal diodes have been replaced with either shorts
or opens:
a) Determine all desired (required) circuit values.
b) Determine iDi through each short circuit and vDi across

each open circuit.

Step 4: CHECK the inequality consistent with your assumption

to see if this assumption is correct.
HOW ??
a) An ideal diode cannot have negative current flowing

through it. If you ASSUMED the ideal diode was forward
biased, CHECK to see if the short circuit current is
positive, i.e.:
iDi > 0
If true, you ASSUMED correctly ! If not, your f.b.

assumption is wrong.
b) An ideal diode cannot have positive voltage across it. If

you ASSUMED the ideal diode was reversed biased,
CHECK to see if the open circuit voltage is negative, i.e.:
vDi < 0
If true, you ASSUMED correctly ! If not, your r.b.

assumption is wrong.
Step 5: If you ASSUMED incorrectly, then change your

assumptions and return to step 1 !

Notes on ideal diode circuit analysis:
1) You must check all assumptions in this form:
iDi = 2 mA > 0 or vDi = 2. 2 > 0 X
2) Do not check the condition that you enforced !
3) For every circuit, one and only one assumption will be

valid.

Whites, EE 320 Lecture 1 Page 1 of 7
Lecture 1: Ideal Diode

Up to this point in your career as an ECE student, youve been
studying linear components in electrical circuits. For example,
resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C) are ideally linear
elements (and passive, of course).
Linear Circuit Elements
What do we mean that a component is linear? To answer this

question, recall there are just two independent qualities of
electricity in electrical circuits. These are voltage and current.
A linear circuit element is one that linearly relates the voltage

across that element to the current through the element.
Linearity has a precise mathematical statement. If a quantity y is

a function of another quantity x, as
y f x (1)
Then y is linearly dependent on x if
my f mx (2)
where m is a constant. In other words, f is a linear function if
when quantity x is multiplied by some constant m results in the
function simply being multiplied by m.
2017 Keith W. Whites

Here are a couple of examples of linear components in electrical

circuits:
Resistors: v Ri .
i
i
+ 1
R v
- v
R
dv
Capacitors: i C .
dt
i +
C v
-
This is perhaps a bit tricker, but notice that differentiation

is a linear operator: if v increases by a factor m then i does
as well.
Ideal Diodes
You will now learn about a new electrical circuit element, the
diode. Diodes are made from two different types of
semiconducting materials that come together to form a
junction:
The circuit symbol is
which is related to the physical markings on a typical diode as
In stark contrast to resistors, inductors, and capacitors, the diode

is a nonlinear element. For an ideal diode, the i-v characteristic
curve is
i
It is apparent from this i-v characteristic curve that there are two
distinct regions of operation of the ideal diode:
v 0 i 0 . In this region, the diode is off.
i 0 v 0 . In this region, the diode is on.
The ideal diode acts as an electronic valve allowing current in
only one direction through the diode: in the direction of the
arrow in the circuit symbol.
We will find this valve behavior very useful in some

situations. For example, this is useful to prevent damage to an
electronic device when the battery is inserted backwards, for
example.
Applications of Diodes
Now we will briefly consider a couple of applications for

diodes. Well cover these in much more detail later.
Signal rectifier.
Think of this R as the Thevenin
resistance of additional circuitry
+ vD - attached to the rectifier circuit.
+ D +
vI R vO
- -
If a ground is not shown, one is assumed

at the negative terminal of the source.
When vI 0 , current will flow into the anode of D and

forward bias this device. With the ideal diode now on, vD is
very small and vO vI :
vI
vO
Conversely, when vI 0 , the ideal diode is off and there is

no current through R. Therefore, vO 0 .
We have rectified the input voltage with this circuit.
This process of rectification will work for any type of input

signal, whether it is periodic (as shown above) or not.
Digital logic gate. Diodes and resistors together can be used

to make rudimentary logic gates. For example:
D1
vA
D2
vB vY
R
Assuming the voltages are 0 V for low signals and 5 V for

the high signals, then the circuit shown above is a two-input
OR gate:
o If vA = 5 V and vB = 0 or 5 V, then vY = 5 V.
o If vB = 5 V and vA = 0 or 5 V, then vY = 5 V.
for ideal diodes. This is an OR function Y=A+B.
Why do we have the resistor in this circuit? Its a clamp

down resistor and forces the voltage vY = 0 when vA = vB = 0.
(What if there was no R? Wouldnt the voltage be zero in this
case as well?)
One huge complication of diodes (or any nonlinear circuit

element) in an electrical circuit is the use of superposition in the
analysis is disallowed! (The exception to this is if the analysis
has been linearized for only small amplitude signals. Well see
this linearization throughout the course.)
Consequently, nonlinear circuit analysis is usually much more

complicated than linear circuit analysis. One often needs
numerical analysis for solution, such as that provided by circuit
simulation software.
Example N1.1 Determine the voltage V and current I in the

circuit below.
D1
1V
D2
3V V
I
1k
-5 V
This is a nonlinear circuit, so a completely different analysis

procedure is required than what youve used in the past for
linear circuits.
One process you can use to solve this problem is to try (i.e.
guess) different on/off combinations for the diodes D1 and D2
until you achieve a physically plausible and self consistent
solution.
For example, if D1 is on and D2 is on, then V = 1 V and 3 V.

It is simply impossible to have two different voltages
simultaneously at a node. Voltages must be single valued at all
nodes. We conclude that D1 and D2 cannot both be on
simultaneously.
Next, we try D1 off and D2 on. This leads to

V = 3 V and I = 8 mA.
This result is physically realistic and self consistent since with V
= 3 V then the voltage drop across D1 requires that it be off,
which is what we have assumed.
Lecture 2: Physical Operation of Diodes.

Real diodes have a more complicated i-v characteristic curve
than ideal diodes. As shown in the text for a silicon diode:
(Fig. 4.8)
The diode has three distinct regions of operation:

1. Forward bias note that when the diode is on, the voltage
drop is approximately 0.6 V to 0.7 V for a silicon diode.
2. Reverse bias in this region i I S , where IS is called the
saturation current. For small-signal diodes, IS is often on
the order of fA (10-15 A).
3. Breakdown in this region v VZK for all I, where VZK is
called the breakdown knee voltage. This region of operation
is useful in certain applications.
In the forward bias region of operation, it can be shown from

first principals that

nVv
i I S e 1
T
(4.1),(1)

where
n = emission constant. Typically between 1 and 2.
Your text uses n = 1 throughout, which is typical of
integrated circuits.
VT kT q 25 mV at room temperature (20C). Called
the thermal voltage.
Notice the highly non-linear relationship between i and v in this
equation. (Youll learn where this mathematical expression
comes from in EE 362.)
When v << 0 in (1), then

nVv
i I S e T 1 I S (2)

which is true for operation in the reverse bias region.
Well now take a quick look at the basic semiconductor physics

behind the pn junction, and then follow this up with examples
and applications.
pn Junction
Semiconductor junction diodes are made by joining two

semiconductors together. A pn junction diode is formed by
joining a p-type semiconductor to an n-type semiconductor:
p type n type
silicon silicon
lattice lattice
For a silicon diode, both the p and n regions are silicon, but in
each of these regions, small amounts of impurities have been
added through a process called doping.
To make p and n regions, we begin with a silicon crystal as

shown in Fig. 3.1. These atoms are held together by covalent
bonds (sharing pairs of electrons).
(Fig. 3.1)
At T = 0, the outermost electron (e-) of each atom is held in

covalent bonds. No current is possible since no electrons are
available to contribute to conduction.
For T > 0, random thermal vibration provides enough energy for

some of the e- to break their covalent bonds (see Fig. 3.2). These
e- can contribute to conduction current.
(Fig. 3.2)
These figures are a planar representation of a real, 3-D silicon

lattice. In 3-D, each Si atom is adjacent to four other atoms in a
diamond-type lattice. Adjacent atoms share a pair of electrons
(i.e., a covalent bond).
Holes
When electrons are thermally excited out of covalent bonds,

they also leave a vacancy at the bond site, as illustrated above
in Fig. 3.2. This is called a hole.
Interestingly, holes can also contribute to conduction current in a

semiconductor material (see the figure below). This movement
is usually much slower than e- so the so-called mobility of
holes is smaller than that of electrons.
Donors and Acceptors
The concentration of holes and free electrons (so-called

electron-hole pairs) can be changed in a silicon crystal by adding
small amounts of impurities called dopants. This is what makes
electronic devices possible!
(1) To create holes, add acceptor dopants to the silicon (see

Fig. 3.4). For such p-type semiconductors, the silicon is
doped with trivalent impurity elements such as boron
(having three valence electrons). These impurity atoms
displace some of the silicon atoms (having four valence
electrons) with boron atoms. Consequently, the regular
silicon lattice has holes, or locations in the lattice that
can accept a free electron. This hole can also move
through the lattice.
(Fig. 3.4)
(2) To create free electrons, add donor dopants (see Fig. 3.3).
For such n-type semiconductors, the silicon is doped with
pentavalent impurity elements such as phosphorus. These
impurities displace silicon atoms (with four valence
electrons) with phosphorous atoms (having five valence
electrons). Consequently, one extra electron is available to
move through the silicon lattice.
(Fig. 3.3)
Be aware that the entire p-type and n-type regions remain charge
neutral at all times! The dopant atoms are also charge neutral.
At room temperature, thermal ionization breaks some covalent

bonds. In n-type materials we then have free electrons while in
p-type materials we have free holes.
p type means positive charge carriers predominate while n

type means negative charge carriers predominate.
Depletion Region
Something very special occurs when we place p-type material in

contact with n-type material. There now appears to be an
excess of holes in the p-type material and an excess of free
electrons in the n type.
p type n type
silicon silicon
lattice lattice
Through the mechanism of diffusion (random motion due to

thermal agitation), excess holes will migrate to the n-type region
while excess free electrons will migrate to the p-type region.
More specifically, when the p- and n-type materials are placed

in contact (forming a junction), two things happen near the
contact region:
(1) Holes diffuse across the junction into the n-type region
(diffuse because the hole concentration is higher in p type)
and recombine with majority electrons.
Diffusion of
majority carrier.
Recombination
+ + -
p type n type
With this electron now gone, we have uncovered a

positive charge from the dopant atom in the n-type region.
This forms a positively charged region:
++
++
++
++
++
p type + + n type
++
(2) Similarly, the majority carriers in the n-type region

(electrons) diffuse across the junction and recombine with
majority holes in the p-type region. This uncovers negative
bound charge:
- - ++
- - ++
- - ++
- - ++
- - ++
p type -- -
-
+ + n type
++
This contact region between the p and n regions now has a

bound volume electric charge density. It is called the depletion
region. This may seem an unexpected name since only in this
region is there a net volume charge density (aka space charge)!
Reverse and Forward Biased Junction
There are two important states for a pn junction, the reversed

biased and forward biased states:
(1) Reversed biased state:
An electric field E is created in the depletion region
because of the uncovered charges near the junction:
Ebattery
- - - +++
- - - +++
- - - +++
E- - - +++
- - - +++
p - - - +++ n
- - - +++
width of depletion
region increases
For the reversed biased state of the pn junction, the electric

field produced by the battery Ebattery adds to this electric
field of the space charge E in the depletion region. This
increases the width of the depletion region.
Consequently, the majority carriers cannot flow through

the region: holes in the p material are opposed by E in the
depletion region, as are electrons in the n material. Hence,
little current flows (only the drift current IS) unless the
junction breaks down. This occurs when Ebattery is strong
enough to strip electrons from the covalent bonds of the
atoms, which are then swept across the junction.
(2) Forward biased state:

Ebattery
minority carrier
minority carrier + - + +
- +
- +
p E - + n
- +
- - + -
- +
I
width of depletion
region decreases
When V is large enough so that Ebattery > E, then the

majority carriers can flow through the depletion region: (i)
holes are swept from the p to n regions, and (ii) electrons
are swept from the n to p regions. We now have current!
Lecture 3: DC Analysis of Diode Circuits.

Well now move on to the DC analysis of diode circuits.
Applications will be covered in following lectures.
Lets consider this very simple diode circuit:
We will assume that the diode is forward biased. Using KVL

VDD IR VD (4.7),(1)
From the characteristic equation for the diode
nV
VD

I I S e 1
T
(4.1),(2)

Assuming n, IS, and VT are known, we have two equations for
the two unknown quantities VD and I. Substituting (2) into (1):
nV
VD

VD VDD I S R e 1
T
(3)

which is a transcendental equation for VD. There is no simple
analytical solution to this equation.
So how do we solve such a circuit problem? Over the next

couple of pages well mention five methods.

1. Graphical Analysis. Begin with the diode i-v characteristic

curve:
From (1), we can rearrange the equation in terms of I to also

plot above. That is, from (1)
V V
I DD D (4)
R R
which is an equation for a straight line ( y b mx ):
i
VDD/R
Slope = -1/R
v
VDD
We call this straight line the load line.
Now, plot both of these curves on the same graph:

(Fig. 4.11)
The point where these two curves intersect is the
simultaneous solution to the two equations (1) and (2).
This graphical method is an impractical solution method for

all but the simplest circuits. However, it is useful for a
qualitative understanding of these circuits. For example, what
happens when:
(a) VDD increases?
VDD
(b) R increases?
R
2. Simulation packages. SPICE, Agilents Advanced Design

System (ADS), etc. Here is a simple example using ADS:
DC
DC
DC1
565 mV
VD
2V 1.43 mA
R
-1.43 mA 1.43 mA
R1
V_DC R=1 kOhm ap_dio_1N4148_1_19930601
SRC1 D1
Vdc=2.0 V
3. Numerical methods. Use Mathematica, Matlab, Mathcad, etc.

Here is a simple example from Mathcad:
4. Iterative analysis. See Example 4.4 in the text.

5. Approximate analysis. This is by far the most widely used
approach for hand calculations.
Approximate Diode Circuit Solutions
There is often a need for us to perform design with pencil and

paper. Remember: simulation packages dont design for you,
they only analyze circuits. Theres a big difference between
design and analysis!
There are two very important approximate diode models that

allow easier paper designs:
1. Constant-Voltage-Drop (CVD) Model.
2. Piecewise Linear (PWL) Model.
Constant-Voltage-Drop (CVD) Model
In this model, the characteristic curve is approximated as:

(Fig. 1)
(Sedra and Smith, 5th ed.)
In words, this model says that if the diode is forward biased,

then the voltage drop across the diode is VD. If not forward
biased, the diode is then reversed biased and the current is zero
and VD can be any value < VD.
VD is often set to 0.7 V for silicon diodes, as shown above, while

set to 0.2 V for Schottky diodes, for example.
The CVD equivalent circuit model for diodes is
(Fig. 2)
This is probably the most commonly used diode model for hand
calculations.
Example N3.1. Determine the current I in the circuit below

using the CVD model and assuming a silicon diode.
Using the CVD model of Fig. 2, the equivalent approximate

circuit is:
Assuming the diode is forward conducting (i.e., on) with VD =

0.7 V and using KVL in this circuit:
2 IR VD
2 VD 2 0.7
or I 1.3 mA
R 1000
The positive value of this current indicates our original
assumption that the diode is on is correct.
What if VDD = 0.5 V? By KVL again,

0.5 VD 0.5 0.7

I 0.2 mA.
R 1000
Since I is negative, then D must be reversed biased. This means
our initial forward conducting assumption was incorrect. Rather,
in this situation I = 0 and VD = 0.5 V.
Piecewise Linear (PWL) Diode Model
This is a battery plus internal diode resistance model. It is one

step better than the CVD model by incorporating a slope to the
interpolative line:
(Fig. 3)
The finite slope to this curve means that the diode has a non-
zero internal resistance, which we will label as rD. The
equivalent circuit for the PWL diode model is then
(Fig. 4)
Example N3.2. Determine the current I in the circuit below

using the PWL diode model shown in Fig. 3.
From Fig. 3, we can determine VD0 and rD for the particular

diode whose characteristic equation is shown:
VD0 = 0.65 V
run 0.9 0.65
rD 20.8 .
rise 12 103
The equivalent circuit using the PWL model of the diode is then
I R=1 k
+
+
Ideal VIdeal
-
VDD=
VD VD0=0.65 V
2V
rD=20.8
-
Assuming the diode is on,, then by KVL:

2 I 1000 0.65 20.8 I
or I = 1.32 mA.
This is close to the 1.3 mA we computed in the last example

using the cruder CVD model. Again, the positive value of this
current indicates that we made the correct choice that the diode
is on.
Whats the forward voltage drop across the diode?

VD 2 1000 1.32 103 0.68 V
Is this enough to turn the diode on? Yes, referring to the
equivalent circuit above
VIdeal VD 0.65 20.8 1.32 103 0 V
Lecture 4: Small-Signal Diode Model

and Its Application.
The diode analysis so far has focused only on DC signals. We
must also consider the application of diodes in circuits with time
varying signals. This analysis is also complicated by the
nonlinear nature of the diode.
Large signal analysis of diode circuits is often best left for

circuit simulation packages. Conversely, small-signal analysis
of nonlinear diode circuits can sometimes be done by hand.
The concept behind small-signal operation is that a time varying

signal with small amplitude rides on a DC value that may or
may not be large.
The analysis of the circuit is then divided into two parts:

1. DC bias
2. AC signal of small amplitude.
and the solutions are added together using superposition.
Because the AC portion is small, the circuit can be linearized

as well see in this lecture, and superposition can be accurately

applied. (Remember that generally for a nonlinear circuit,
superposition cannot be used accurately.)
For example:
(Similar to Fig. 4.13)

where vd(t) is some time varying waveform, perhaps periodic
such as a sinusoid or triangle signal.
The purpose of VD in this circuit is to set the operation of the

diode about a point on the forward bias i-v characteristic curve
of the diode. This is called the quiescent point, or Q point, and
the process of setting these DC values is called biasing the
diode.
(Fig. 4.14)
The total voltage at any time t is the sum of the DC and AC
components
vD t VD vd t (4.8),(1)
provided the AC signal is small enough that the diode operates
approximately in a linear fashion. (See Section 1.4.8 for a
discussion on the symbol convention used in your text.)
The diode current is (4.1) with iD t I S such that

vD t VD vd t
iD t I S e nVT
I S e e nVT
nVT

ID
vd t
or iD t I D e nVT (4.12),(2)
where ID is the DC diode current.
We can series expand the exponential term using

x2
e 1 x
x
2!
and if vd(t) is small enough so that vd t nVT 2 , truncate
the series to two terms:
vd t
v t
e nVT 1 d (3)
nVT
Substituting (3) in (2) gives
I
iD t I D D vd t (4.14),(4)
nVT
So, if vd(t) is small enough we can see from this last equation
that iD is the sum (or superposition) of two components: DC and
AC signals. What weve done is to linearize the problem by
limiting the AC portion of vD to small values. [It has been
linearized because in (4) the terms with vd2 and higher are all
negligibly small and have been dropped from the equation so
that iD t is only dependent on vD .]
The term nVT I D in (4) has units of ohms. It is called the diode
small-signal resistance:
nV
rd T [] (4.18),(5)
ID
From a physical viewpoint, rd is the inverse slope of the tangent
line at a particular bias point along the characteristic curve of the
diode. Note that rd changes depending on the (DC) bias:
(Note that this rd is a fundamentally different quantity than rD

used in the PWL model of the diode discussed in the previous
lecture.)
The equivalent circuit for the small-signal operation of diodes is:
Because we have linearized the operation of the diode (by

restricting the analysis to small AC signals), we can use
superposition to analyze the composite DC and AC signals.
That is, signal analysis is performed by eliminating all DC

sources (short out DC voltage sources/open circuit DC current
sources) and replacing the diode with its small-signal resistance
rd.
This process is illustrated below:

rd
vd vs
rd R
Example N4.1 (Similar to text Example 4.5). For the circuit

shown below, determine vD when V 10 1 cos 2 60t V.
V+
10 V 2V
Called ripple if one

desires purely DC.
t
T=1/f=1/60 s
The diode specifications are

0.7-V drop at 1 mAdc
n = 2.
As we discussed, for small AC signals we can separate the DC

analysis from the AC (i.e., linearized). We need to start with the
DC bias. Assuming VD 0.7 V for a silicon diode the DC
current is
10 0.7
ID 0.93 mA
10,000
Since I D 1 mA, then VD will be very close to the assumed
value.
At this DC bias, then the small-signal resistance at the Q point is

nVT 2 25 103
rd 3
53.8
ID 0.93 10
We use this rd as the equivalent resistance in the small-signal

model of the diode
The AC voltage across the diode is found from voltage division

as
rd 53.8
vd t vs cos t
rd 10,000 53.8 10,000
5.35cos t mV
The corresponding phasor diode voltage is then
vd 5.35 mVp = 10.70 mVpp

where the subscript p indicates a peak value and the pp
subscript means a peak-to-peak value.
So, the total diode voltage vD is the sum of the DC and AC

voltages:
vD t 0.7 0.00535cos t V
Were we justified in using a small-signal assumption for this

problem? From page 3, lets check if vd t nVT 2 :
vd 5.35 103
0.107
nVT 2 25 103
which is much less than 2. So, yes, the small-signal assumption
is valid here.
As an aside, note that in this circuit the ripple in the voltage has
been reduced at the output. At the input, the ripple is 2/10=20%
of the DC component while at the output the ripple is
0.0107/0.7=1.5% of the DC component.
See text Example 4.6 for another example of this ripple

reduction.
Diode High Frequency Model
This purely resistive AC model for the diode works well when
the frequency of the AC signals is sufficiently low.
At high frequencies, we need to include the effects that arise due

to these time varying signals and the charge separation that
exists in the depletion region and in the bulk p and n regions of
the diode under forward bias conditions.
Cd
+ - + +
- +
p -
-
-
+
+
+
n
- - + -
- +
I Cj
+ -
VS vs
Within the device and the depletion region there exists an

electric field, as discussed in Lecture 2. For AC signals, this
electric field is varying with time.
As youll learn in electromagnetics, a time varying electric field

is a displacement current. The effects of a displacement current
are modeled by equivalent circuit capacitances:
We wont do anything with this effect now. This is presented

primarily as an FYI. (However, later in the course we will
investigate this capacitive junction effect in transistors and how
it affects the gain of transistor amplifier circuits at high
frequencies.)
Lecture 6: Zener Diodes.

The very steep portion in the reverse biased i-v characteristic
curve is called the breakdown region.
In this region the voltage across the diode remains nearly

constant while the current varies (i.e., small internal resistance).
There are two physical mechanisms that can produce this

behavior in the breakdown region. One is the Zener effect in
which the large electric field in the depletion region causes
electrons to be removed from the covalent bonds in the silicon.
The second mechanism is the avalanche effect in which charges

that are accelerated to high speeds due to the large electric field
in the depletion region collide with atoms in the silicon lattice
causing charges to be dislodged. In turn, these dislodged charges
have sufficient energy to liberate additional electrons. In other
words, this avalanche effect is a cascading, ionization process.

Provided that the power dissipated in the diode is less than the
maximum rated, the diode is not damaged when operating in the
breakdown region. In fact, Zener diodes are designed to operate
in this region.
The circuit symbol for the Zener diode is
(Fig. 4.18)
These diodes are usually operated in the reverse bias regime
(i.e., breakdown region) so that IZ > 0 and VZ > 0.
An enlargement of this breakdown region is shown in text Fig.

4.19:
(Fig. 4.19)
The manufacturer specifies the VZ0 and test current IZT. One can
design Zeners with a wide range of voltages.
Why do we need special Zener diodes? Why not just use a

regular diode operating in the reverse breakdown region?
Because these Zener diodes come with a specific reverse
breakdown voltage, and have a wide range of these values, as
can be seen below.
The page below is from a Digikey catalog (www.digikey.com)

and shows voltages from ranging from 3.6 V to 200 V, for
example.
The rated VZ at the specified IZT is listed for these Zener diodes.
The circled component, for example, has VZ = 8.2 V at IZT = 31
mA. The maximum rated power is 1 W for this device.
As the current deviates from the specified value IZT, the voltage
VZ also changes, though perhaps only by a small amount. The
change in voltage VZ is related to the change in the current IZ
as
VZ rz I Z (1)
where rz is the incremental or dynamic resistance at the Q point
and is usually a few Ohms to tens of Ohms. See the datasheet for
the particular device you are working with.
Because of the nearly linear relationships in the breakdown

region, the reverse bias model of the Zener diode is
(Fig. 4.20)
where VZ VZ 0 rz I Z (4.20),(2)
as is apparent from Fig. 4.19.
Applications of Zener Diodes
What are Zener diodes used for? Applications include:
1. Voltage overload protection. This circuit is from the NorCal

40A radio that is built in EE 322 Electronics II Wireless
Communication Electronics:
2. Voltage regulation. See the figure below. An example of

such a regulator circuit will be considered next.
(Source: Sedra and Smith, fourth ed.)
Example N6.1 (similar to text Example 4.7). The Zener diode in

the circuit below has the following characteristics: 6.8-V rating
at 5 mA, rz = 20 , and IZK = 0.2 mA.
(Fig. 4.21a)
With these ratings
VZ VZ 0 rz I Z VZ 0 VZ rz I Z
or VZ 0 6.8 20 5 103 6.7 V
Note that the supply voltage can fluctuate by 1 V. Imagine this

fluctuation is a random process rather than a time periodic
variation.
Determine the following quantities:
(a) Find VO with no load and V+ at the nominal value. The

equivalent circuit for the reverse bias operation of the
Zener diode is
10 V
R=500
+
VZ0=6.7 V
IZ VO
rz=20
-
From this circuit we calculate

10 6.7
IZ 6.35 mA
500 20
Therefore,
VO 10 I Z 500 10 6.35 103 500 6.83 V
(b) Find the change in VO resulting from a 1 V change in V+.

Using the circuit above with V+ = 11 V:
11 6.7
VO 11 500 6.865 V
500 20
Similarly, with V+=9 V:

9 6.7
VO 9 500 6.788 V
500 20
Consequently, VO 6.865 6.788 0.077 V or

VO 38.5 mV.
The ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in

the source voltage ( VO V ) is called the line regulation
of the regulator circuit. Its often expressed in units of
mV/V. For this example and no load attached,
VO 77 mV mV
Line Regulation 38 . 5
V 11 9 V V
(d) Find the change in VO resulting from connecting a load of

RL = 2 k with a nominal V+ = 10 V.
Assuming that the diode is operating in the breakdown

region and that VO 6.8 V:
6.8
then IL 3.4 mA.
2000
[Assuming VO 6.8 V is obviously a cruder approximation

that in parts (a) and (b). But here were only interested in
VO and this helps to simplify the problem.]
Is this a reasonable value? Calculate IS:

10 6.8
IS 6.4 mA.
500
So, yes, this is a reasonable value because I L I S , as it
must.
From (1), VO rz I Z and since I Z 3.4 mA then

VO 20 3.4 103 68 mV
The ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in

the load current ( VO I L ) is called the load regulation of
the regulator circuit. Its often expressed in units of
mV/mA. For this example,
V 68 mV mV
Load Regulation O 20.0
I L 3.4 mA mA
(e) What is VO when RL = 0.5 k? Assume the diode is in

breakdown. In this case,
6.8
IL 13.6 mA.
500
Is this a reasonable value? No, because this value is greater
than IS = 6.4 mA.
Therefore, in this case the Zener diode is not operating in

the breakdown region. Also, the diode cant be forward
biased. Consequently, we conclude the diode must be
operating in the reverse bias region.
The equivalent circuit in this case is

10 V
500
+
VO
-
From this circuit we calculate

500
VO 10 5 V.
500 500
This voltage is less than the breakdown voltage VZK, which
is consistent with the reverse biased assumption.
(f) Determine the minimum RL for which the diode still

remains in breakdown for all V+. [We know from the results
in parts (d) and (e) of this example that RL must lie between
500 and 2 k when V 10 V.]
Referring to Fig. 4.19, at the knee I Z I ZK 0.2 mA and

VZ VZK VZ 0 6.7 V.
If V+ = 9 V:
9 6.7
IS 4.6 mA.
500
Therefore, IL = 4.6 mA-0.2 mA = 4.4 mA, so that
V 6.7
RL L 3
1,522
I L 4.4 10
If V+ = 11 V:
11 6.7
IS 8.6 mA.
500
Therefore, IL = 8.6 mA-0.2 mA = 8.4 mA, so that
V 6.7
RL L 798
I L 8.4 103
The smallest load resistance that can be attached to this

circuit and have the Zener diode remain in breakdown is
RL = 1,522 . The reason is that for any smaller value of
RL when V+ = 9 V results in the zener diode leaving

breakdown and entering the reverse bias mode.
Lecture 7: Diode Rectifier Circuits

(Half Cycle, Full Cycle, and Bridge).
We saw in the previous lecture that Zener diodes can be used in
circuits that provide (1) voltage overload protection, and (2)
voltage regulation.
An important application of regular diodes is in rectification

circuits. These circuits are used to convert AC signals to DC in
power supplies.
A block diagram of this process in a DC power supply is shown

below in text Fig. 4.22:
In this DC power supply, the first stage is a transformer:
An ideal transformer changes the amplitude of time-varying

voltages as

N2
vs vp (1)
N1
This occurs even though there is no direct contact between the
input and output sections. This magic is described by
Faradays law:
d

CS
E dl
dt S C
B ds
d m
or emf (2)
dt
By varying the ratio N 2 N1 in (1) we can increase or decrease

the output voltage relative to the input voltage:
If N 2 N1 , have a step-up transformer
If N 2 N1 , have a step-down transformer.
For example, to convert wall AC at ~120 VRMS to DC at, say,

13.8 VDC, we need a step down transformer with a ratio of:
N 2 15 1
or 8 :1 ratio ( N1 : N 2 ).
N1 120 8
We choose vs 15 VDC for a margin.
For the remaining stages in this DC power supply:

Diode rectifier. Gives a unipolar voltage, but pulsating
with time.
Filter. Smoothes out the pulsation in the voltage.
Regulator. Removes the ripple to produce a nearly pure DC

voltage.
We will now concentrate on the rectification of the AC signal.

Well cover filtering in the next lecture.
Diode Rectification
We will discuss three methods for diode rectification:

1. Half-cycle rectification.
2. Full-cycle rectification.
3. Bridge rectification. (This is probably the most widely
used.)
1. Half-Cycle Rectification
Weve actually already seen this circuit before in this class!
(Fig. 4.23a)
We will use the PWL model for the diode to construct the
equivalent circuit for the rectifier:

From this circuit, the output voltage will be zero if vS t VD 0 .
Conversely, if vS t VD 0 we can determine vO by superposition

of the two sources (DC and AC) in the circuit sources since we
have linearized the diode:
R
DC: vO VD 0 (Why is this voltage negative?)
R rD
R
AC: vO t vS t
R rD
Notice that were not making a small AC signal assumption
here. Rather, we have used the assumption of the PWL model to
completely linearize this problem when vS t VD 0 and then
used superposition of the two sources, which just happen to be
DC and AC sources. (Consequently, we should not use rd here.)
The total voltage is the sum of the DC and AC components:

R
vO t vO vO t vS t VD 0 vS t VD 0
R rD
(3)
For vS t VD 0 , vO t 0 .
In many applications, rD R so that R R rD 1. Hence,

0 vS t VD 0
vO t (4.21),(4)
vS t VD 0 vS t VD 0
A sketch of this last result is shown in the figure below.
(Fig. 4.23c)
There are two important device parameters that must be

considered when selecting rectifier diodes:
1. Diode current carrying capacity.
2. Peak inverse voltage (PIV). This is the largest reverse
voltage across the diode. The diode must be able to
withstand this voltage without shifting into breakdown.
For the half-cycle rectifier with a periodic waveform input

having a zero average value
PIV Vs (4.22),(5)
where Vs is the amplitude of vS.
2. Full-Cycle Rectification
One disadvantage of half-cycle rectification is that one half of

the source waveform is not utilized. No power from the source
will be converted to DC during these half cycles when the input
waveform is negative in Fig. 4.23c.
The full-cycle rectifier, on the other hand, utilizes both the

positive and negative portions of the input waveform. An
example of a full-cycle rectifier circuit is:
(Fig. 4.24a)
Notice that the transformer has a center tap that is connected to
ground. For such a transformer, the same relationship (1) applies
as for a regular transformer, but to the entire secondary voltage.
So, for the center tapped transformer, the voltage across each
secondary winding is one-half of the total secondary voltage.
On the positive half of the input cycle vS 0 , which implies that

D1 is on and D2 is off. Conversely, on the negative half of
the input cycle, vS 0 which implies that D1 is off and D2 is

on.
In both cases, the output current iO t 0 and the output voltage

vO t 0 :
(Fig. 4.24c)
While this full-cycle rectifier is a big improvement over the half-
cycle, there are a couple of disadvantages:
PIV 2Vs VD 0 [ Vs VD 0 Vs ], which is about twice
that of the half-cycle rectifier. This fact may require
expensive or hard-to-find diodes.
Requires twice as many transformer windings on the
secondary as does the half-cycle rectifier since vs is needed
from each set of windings.
3. Bridge Rectification
The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected in the famous

bridge pattern:
Is
+ +
D4 D1
- vO +
vp vs
D2 D3
- -
Is
Oftentimes these diodes can be purchased as a single, four-

terminal device.
Note that the bridge rectifier does not require a center-tapped

transformer, but uses four diodes instead.
The operation of the bridge rectifier can be summarized as:

1. When vS t 0 then D1 and D2 are on while D3 and D4
are off:
2. When vS t 0 then D1 and D2 are off while D3 and D4

are on:
i
D4
- vO +
i
D3
In both cases, though, vO t 0 :
(Fig. 4.25b)
The bridge rectifier is the most popular rectifier circuit.
Advantages include:
PIV Vs VD 0 , which is nearly the same as the half-cycle
rectifier.
No center tapped transformer is required, as is needed for
the half-cycle rectifier.

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8/18/2005 The Ideal Diode Circuit Analysis Guide.

The Ideal Diode

Step 1: ASSUME a bias state for each ideal diode.

In other words, GUESS !!

a) ASSUME an ideal diode is forward biased, or

b) ASSUME it is reversed biased.

Step 2: ENFORCE the equality condition consistent with your

a) If you assume an ideal diode is f.b., then ENFORCE the

HOW ? By replacing the ideal diode with a short

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

b) If you assumed an ideal diode was r.b., then ENFORCE

HOW ? By replacing the ideal diode with an open

IMPORTANT !!! Retain the same current and voltage

Step 3: ANALYZE the circuit.

a) Determine all desired (required) circuit values.

b) Determine iDi through each short circuit and vDi across

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

Step 4: CHECK the inequality consistent with your assumption

a) An ideal diode cannot have negative current flowing

If true, you ASSUMED correctly ! If not, your f.b.

b) An ideal diode cannot have positive voltage across it. If

If true, you ASSUMED correctly ! If not, your r.b.

Step 5: If you ASSUMED incorrectly, then change your

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

Notes on ideal diode circuit analysis:

1) You must check all assumptions in this form:

iDi = 2 mA > 0 or vDi = 2. 2 > 0 X

2) Do not check the condition that you enforced !

3) For every circuit, one and only one assumption will be

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

Lecture 1: Ideal Diode

Linear Circuit Elements

What do we mean that a component is linear? To answer this

A linear circuit element is one that linearly relates the voltage

Linearity has a precise mathematical statement. If a quantity y is

2017 Keith W. Whites

Here are a couple of examples of linear components in electrical

This is perhaps a bit tricker, but notice that differentiation

The circuit symbol is

which is related to the physical markings on a typical diode as

In stark contrast to resistors, inductors, and capacitors, the diode

We will find this valve behavior very useful in some

Now we will briefly consider a couple of applications for

If a ground is not shown, one is assumed

When vI 0 , current will flow into the anode of D and

Conversely, when vI 0 , the ideal diode is off and there is

We have rectified the input voltage with this circuit.

This process of rectification will work for any type of input

Digital logic gate. Diodes and resistors together can be used

Assuming the voltages are 0 V for low signals and 5 V for

Why do we have the resistor in this circuit? Its a clamp

One huge complication of diodes (or any nonlinear circuit

Consequently, nonlinear circuit analysis is usually much more

Example N1.1 Determine the voltage V and current I in the

This is a nonlinear circuit, so a completely different analysis

For example, if D1 is on and D2 is on, then V = 1 V and 3 V.

Next, we try D1 off and D2 on. This leads to

Lecture 2: Physical Operation of Diodes.

The diode has three distinct regions of operation:

In the forward bias region of operation, it can be shown from

2017 Keith W. Whites

When v << 0 in (1), then

Well now take a quick look at the basic semiconductor physics

Semiconductor junction diodes are made by joining two