TECHNIQUES OF DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:

Superposition Principle
Thevenins Theorem
Nortons Theorem
Source Transformation
Maximum Power Transfer

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 Applies only for LINEAR CIRCUIT

Circuit containing linear

elements, linear dependent and
independent sources

A LINEAR relationship
between voltage and
current

What do we mean by a linear relationship?

2
When the relationship fulfilled 2 properties:

Homogeneity (scaling)

f(x) = y f(kx) = ky = kf(x)

Additivity

f(x) = y f(x1 + x2) = f(x1) + f(x2) = y1 + y2

What do we mean by a linear relationship?

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Superposition Principle: The voltage across an element ( or the
current through an element) of a linear circuit containing more than
one independent source, is the algebraic sum the voltage across
that element (or the current through that element) due to each
independent source acting alone.

All other independent sources are KILLED

voltage sources are shorted
current sources are opened

Dependent sources CANNOT be killed !

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Superposition Principle: The voltage across an element ( or the
current through an element) of a linear circuit containing more than
one independent source, is the algebraic sum the voltage across
that element (or the current through that element) due to each
independent source acting alone.

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Superposition Theorem: The voltage across an element ( or the
current through an element) of a linear circuit containing more than
one independent source, is the algebraic sum the voltage across
that element (or the current through that element) due to each
independent source acting alone.

OR other definition

Superposition Theorem: In any network made up of linear

resistances and containing more than one source of e.m.f., the
resultant current flowing in any branch is the algebraic sum of the
currents that would flow in that branch if each source was
considered separately, all other sources being replaced at
that time by their respective internal resistances.

may involve MORE work

cannot be applied to power calculation find i or v

first (using superposition) before calculating power !
most suitably used when involved with sources of different
properties or types, e.g. different frequencies, mixture of
DC and AC, etc. 6
A circuit containing two sources of e.m.f., each with
their internal resistance. Determine the current in each
branch of the network by using the superposition
theorem.

Step 1 Step 2
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Step 1:

8
Step 2:

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Step 3: superimpose ccts in step 1 & 2

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11
12
Step 1: Step 2:

OR

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14
Quiz/Tutorial
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16
Quiz/Tutorial
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18
19
 . eqn (a)

Step 1: Step 2:

(2)

(3)

(1)
(4)
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Substitute (4) into (3)

(5)

Substitute (4) & (5) into (2)

(6)

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Substitute (1) & (6) into (a)

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Quiz/Tutorial

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Thevenins Theorem: The current
in any branch of a network is that which
would result if an e.m.f. equal to the p.d.
across a break made in the branch, were
introduced into the branch, all other
e.m.f.s being removed and represented
by the internal resistances of the
sources.

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Procedure:
(i) remove the resistance R from that branch,
(ii) determine the open-circuit voltage, E, across the Break.
(iii) remove each source of e.m.f. and replace them by their
internal resistances and then determine the resistance, r,
looking-in at the break,
(iv) determine the value of the current from the equivalent cct

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 Thevenins
In 1883, M.L. Theorem : A linear
Thevenin two-terminal
proposed circuit can be
a theorem .
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

I
+
Linear two-
terminal V Load
circuit

RTh I
VTh= ?
+

VTh V Load
RTh= ?

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Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine VTh

RTh

VTh Load

=
Linear two-
terminal
circuit Load

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Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine VTh

RTh
+
VTh Loadvoltage = Voc
open circuit = VTh

Linear two-
terminal
circuit Load

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Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine VTh

RTh
+
VTh open circuit voltage = Voc = VTh

Linear two-
terminal +
circuit Load
open circuit voltage = Voc

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Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine VTh

RTh
+
VTh open circuit voltage = Voc = VTh

VTh = Voc = Open circuit voltage

Linear two-
terminal +
circuit
= VTh voltage
open circuit (Since=the
Voc circuit is equivalent)

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Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine RTh

Case 1 Network with NO dependent sources

Kill all the independent sources

Linear
circuit
independent
sources
killed
Rin = RTh

Find the equivalent R looking between the terminals

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Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine RTh

Case 2 Network with dependent sources

Kill all the independent sources - dependent sources

stay as they are

io
Linear
Circuit
ONLY +
vo
dependent -
sources
killed RTh is calculated as:

v io
R

o
=

T
h
Introduce a voltage (or current) source.

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Ex 1: Use Thevenins theorem to find the current
flowing in the 10 resistor.

Step 1: Remove the 10 resistor in the cct.

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Step 2: Remove the source emf in the cct.

Step 3: The equivalent Thevenins cct

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ex 2: Use Thevenins theorem to determine the
current I flowing in the 4 resistor. Find also the
power dissipated in the 4 resistor.

Step 1: Remove the 4 resistor in the cct.

or
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Step 2: Remove the source emf in the cct.

Step 3: The equivalent Thevenins cct

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37
 .(1)
.(2)

Substitute (2) into (1)

.(3)
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39
40
41
 Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a impedande.
ZTh

+
VTh open circuit voltage = Voc = VTh = Voc = ZNIN

Linear two-
terminal +
circuit
Voc = VTh (Since the circuit is equivalent)

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Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a impedande.

To determine ZTH

SIMILAR METHOD AS HOW TO OBTAIN ZTh

ZN = ZTh

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44
(1) (2)

.(3)
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Substitute (1) & (2) into (3)

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Nortons Theorem: The current
that flows in any branch of a network is
the same as that which would flow in the
branch if it were connected across a
source of electrical energy, the short-
circuit current of which is equal to the
current that would flow in a short-circuit
across the branch, and the internal
resistance of which is equal to the
resistance which appears across the
open-circuited branch terminals.

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Procedure:
(i) short-circuit branch AB
(ii) determine the short-circuit current ISC
(iii) remove all sources of e.m.f. and replace them by
their internal resistance and then determine the
resistance, r, looking-in at the break,
(iv) determine the current, I flowing in resistance R
from the Norton equivalent network

48
 Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
43byyears later, E.L. Norton proposed a similar theorem. .
an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

I
+
Linear two-
terminal V Load
circuit

I I N= ?
+
IN RN
V Load

RN= ?
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Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

To determine IN

IN IN
RN

Linear
circuit

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Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

To determine IN

IN IN= Short circuit current

RN

Linear Short circuit current = IN

circuit

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Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

To determine IN

IN IN= Short circuit current

RN

IN = Isc = Short circuit current

Linear Short circuit current = IN

circuit

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Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

To determine RN

SIMILAR METHOD AS HOW TO OBTAIN RTh

RN = RTh

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Ex 1: Use Nortons theorem to determine the current
flowing in the 10 resistance for the circuit as
shown below.

Step 1: short-circuit branch AB.

=
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Step 2: remove all sources of e.m.f. and replace them
by their internal resistance and then determine
the resistance, r, looking-in at the break

Step 3: determine the current, I flowing in 10

resistance from the Norton equivalent network.

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Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a impedance.
impedance

To determine IN

IN IN= Short circuit current

ZN

IN = Isc = Short circuit current

Linear Short circuit current = IN

circuit

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Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a impedance.
impedance

To determine ZN

SIMILAR METHOD AS HOW TO OBTAIN ZTh

ZN = ZTh

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58
 (1)

(2)

(3)
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Determine eqn (1), (2) & (3) using cramers rule
(4)

Subsitute (4) into (3)

(5)

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61
62
 Relationship between Nortons and Thevenins equivalents

a
IN
RN

Linear two- a
terminal
circuit OR

RTh a
VTh

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Relationship between Nortons and Thevenins equivalents

a
+ IN
v oc = INR N RN

b

v i
V TI N

o s
c c
VT

IN
R

R
Since both circuits are equivalent, voc must

h
= be = = =
h

T
h
the same

+ RTh a
VTh
v oc = VTh

b

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Source Transformation: A tool used to simplify circuit; a process of
replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor by a current source
in parallel with a resistor or vice versa

R
a a
vs is
R

b b

voc = vs voc = isR

If the circuit is equivalent at terminal a-b, their open-circuit and
short-circuit
i characteristics
= v /R are similar isc = is
sc s

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Source Transformation: A tool used to simplify circuit; a process of
replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor by a current source
in parallel with a resistor or vice versa

R
a a
vs is
R

b b

voc = vs voc = isR

isc = vs/R isc = is

vs
is = or v s = i sR
R
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e.g 1:

Step (1)

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Step (2)

Step (3)

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e.g 2:

Step (1)

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e.g 3:

Step (1)

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Step (2)

Step (3)

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Source Transformation:

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73
74
75
Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems

Find Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b

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Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems

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Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems

E2

+
-
+
E

-
R9 R8

2 2

I3
R6 R7
1Aac
TRAN = 4 6
0

78
Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems

E2

+
-
+
E

-
R9 R8

2 2

I3
R6 R7
1Aac
TRAN = 4 6
0

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Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems

E2

+
-
+
E

-
R9 R8

2 2

I3 I4
R6 R7
1Aac 1Aac
TRAN = 4 6 TRAN =
0 1

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Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems

1.333V RTh = 6/1 = 6

E2

+
-
+
E

-
4.000V

R9 R8

6.000V
2 2

I3 I4
R6 R7
1Aac 1Aac
TRAN = 4 6 TRAN =
0 1

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Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems

6.667V VTh = 20V

E2

+
-
+
E

-
20.00V

R9 R8

20.00V
2 2

I3 I4
R6 R7
1Aac 1Aac
TRAN = 4 6 TRAN =
5 0

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