Social Science 3

First Prelim Coverage Fact Sheets

BASIC CONCEPTS

Politics- is traditionally defined as the science and art of government (The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Politics, 199). It is the process of making government policies. It deals with public affairs, that is, the
distribution of goods and services to satisfy the demands of the public. It is also concerned with
conflicts and their resolutions. Conflicts are said to be ubiquitous in politics due to the competition
for scarce resources. Politics is the art of managing these conflicts in order to preserve social order. It
has an etymology from the Greek word “polis” which refers to the ancient city-states of which
Athens and Sparta were the most prominent. The modern usage denotes a process in the political
system in which the goals of that system are selected and ordered in terms of priority in the
allocation of resources.

Governance- is the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of
political affairs (NEDA, 1998). It is the process by which people collectively solve problems and meet
social needs. It deals with the processes, institutions, mechanisms, and activities through which
individuals and groups in the state articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and
resolve their conflicts. It can also be viewed as a process of steering the government towards its
obligation to see to it that the basic services, peace and order, and needed goods are provided to the
people (NEDA, 1998).

Types of Governance:

a. Political Governance- refers to the formulation and implementation of policies by the

government. It is the interplay of the 3 branches of government in which the legislative branch
formulates policies, the executive branch implements policies, and the judicial branch
adjudicates legal controversies.
b. Economic Governance- the process of decision-making that affects domestic economic activities
and the relationship between the domestic and international markets.
c. Administrative Governance- the process of implementing policies through an efficient,
independent and accountable bureaucracy.
d. Ecological Governance- the use of science and technology and the mobilization of all
stakeholders in the management of the environment.

Requirements of Good Governance

1. Transparency- the extent to which the general public should be informed about government
operations.
 2. Accountability- the extent that the government officials can be held responsible for their
decisions and for the performance of their agencies.
3. Participatory- refers to the extent that the general public including key stakeholders and
marginalized groups (women, ethnic or religious minorities, etc.) are able to participate in and
influence both the decision-making process and ongoing government operations.

a. Electoral activity d. Contacting

b. Lobbying e. Violence
c. Organizing

4. Legitimacy- the extent that the operation of the government is acceptable to the people.
5. Efficiency and Effectiveness in the use of resources- Effectiveness is the extent in which the acts
of government contribute to the performance of government function such as in the
maintenance of peace and order, delivery of basic goods and services and maintenance of
ecological balance. On the operations of government agencies, it refers to their ability to focus
their functions and attain their goals and objectives. Efficiency is the extent that the functions
of the government are performed through established processes and within reasonable cost.

Other Concepts in the Study of Politics

Power- is the capacity of an actor to compel or influence other actors to alter their behavior or to do
what they would not do otherwise.

Authority- refers to the formal or legal relationships between policymakers (political elite) and the
citizens.

Influence- is a species of power but it may connote more than those instances where power and
authority manifest themselves.

Legitimacy- is the extent to which the citizens regard the state and its institutions including its policies
and programs as morally right and acceptable.

Attitude- is a learned predisposition towards political objects. This predisposition may be positively or
negatively directed towards certain people, issues, activity, or institutions (Dahl, 1976).

Components:

1. Cognitive- the awareness or knowledge of an idea.

2. Affective- consists of feelings or emotions which guide preferences whether we like or
dislike something.
3. Behavioral intent- the readiness to act which grows out from the evaluation of the potential
consequences of a behavior.

Public Opinion- refers to the summation of the expressed or verbalized attitudes of individuals.
Perception- is the way how a political actor views his environment and the various stimuli within.

Values- are enduring beliefs that a specific end-state of existing order or mode of conduct is preferable
to an opposite state.

Conflict- is a disharmony arising from stresses and strains due to some changes in the political
environment.

Decision-making- (or policymaking) is the process by which authorized individuals or groups make
decisions to allocate resources in the society through resolutions, laws, policies, programs, decrees,
etc.

Groups- Those groups that emerge from the association of individuals with common interest serve as
the vehicle through which they participate in politics.

The Concept of State and Government

State- is a community of persons more or less numerous occupying a definite portion of the territory
completely free of external control and possessing an organized government to which a great body
of inhabitants render habitual obedience (Garner, 2002). It possesses an inherent supreme power
called sovereignty, which is shown in its ability to use force in advancing its interests like in
maintaining its territorial integrity, ensuring the security of its people, enforcing its policies within its
jurisdiction, and in pursuing its relations with other states.

Nation- is an ethnic concept, defined as a people, or an aggregation of men, existing in the form of an
organized society, usually inhabiting a distinct portion of the earth, speaking the same language,
doing the same customs, possessing historic continuity, and disguised from other like groups by their
racial origin and characteristics, and generally but not necessarily, living under the same government
and sovereignty.

4 Essential Elements of State

1. People- refer to the inhabitants of the state.

2. Territory- is the fixed portion on the surface of the Earth inhabited by the people of the State.
3. Sovereignty- is the supreme power inherent in a State.
4. Government- is the instrument that provides mechanisms in determining, formulating, and
implementing the policies of the state. It is the essential instrument or machinery of the state
that carries out its will, purposes and objectives. It is an institution by which society’s needs for
social services are satisfied and by which conflicting interests are reconciled (Ayson, et. al.,
2000).

Administration- refers to the groups of persons headed by the President in whose hands the reins of
government are held for the time being. It is the one the runs the government at a given period of time.
 Functions of a Government

1. Constituent Functions- are basic functions of the government that must be performed. Their
performance is the minimum requirement for an orderly existence. These functions provide the
reason for the existence of the government.
2. Ministrant Functions- are those undertaken to advance the general interests of society, such as
public works and public charity.

Forms of Government (as classified into various forms depending on the criteria used

a. Accdg. to the no. of people who rule or participate in the exercise of sovereignty
1. Monarchy- a government in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single
person. This is a form of government where the ruler is a monarch who comes from a royal
family.
2. Oligarchy- a government by the minority in the society or the government of the few.
i. Aristocracy- government by the elite of the society who has high social status which
is usually inherited.
ii. Plutocracy- the government by the few who are rich.
iii. Theocracy- the government by the few religious elite.
3. Democracy- government by the people.
i. Direct (Participative) Democracy- the will of the masses is formulated directly in a
mass meeting or primary assembly rather than through representatives.
ii. Representative Democracy- the will of the State is formulated and expressed
through a relatively small body of persons chosen by the people to act as their
representative such as the Congress or the parliament.
b. Accdg. to the relationship between the national and local governments
4. Federal- a government where there is a division of governmental powers between the
national government and the local government or constituent units and such division of
powers are specified in the constitution. In this form, the local government units are
autonomous from the national government; they have inherent powers, which the national
government cannot withdraw or take away from them.
5. Unitary- the central or national government is supreme, possessing complete government
power. The powers possessed by the local government units are delegated from the
national government; hence, they can be withdrawn by the national government anytime.
Any autonomy granted to the local government units is temporary, and is granted through
the special laws and their scope and operation are subject to the definition by the central
government.
c. Accdg. to the status (either civilian or military) of those who hold the rein of govt.
6. Civil government- ruled by a civilian authority; usually follows the dismantling of a military
government.
 7. Military government- one established and administered by a belligerent in the territory of
an enemy it administers. It may also happen in short periods when military officers seize the
reign of government and imposes martial rule.
d. Accdg. to the relationship between the executive and the legislature.
8. Parliamentary government- one in which the executive is a member of the legislature and is
subject to its control. It is one in which the state confers upon the legislature the complete
control of the administration of the law.
9. Presidential government- the executive is independent of the legislature both in tenure and
prerogative. In this form, there is separation of executive and legislative power and that the
legislature cannot interfere into the functions of chief executive who is called president.
e. Other forms.
10. Despotic government- one in which the powers of those who rule are not limited by any
constitutional understanding or agreement with the people. It is also called authoritarian
government.
11. Totalitarian government- an extreme form of an authoritarian government where there is
an official ideology in which members of the society must adhere to and which covers all
aspects of life in the society. It exercises maximum censorship upon the lives of its citizens.
12. Republican government- a government which derives all its powers directly or indirectly
from the great body of people and is administered by representatives holding their offices
for a limited period, or during good behavior.
13. Constitutional government- the structures of the government and the powers as well as the
manner they are exercised by those who hold office are defined by the constitution. Also,
the procedure for the selection of government officials is clearly specified in the
constitution.
14. De jure government- a government that is founded upon a constitution. It operates within
the well-defined procedures established through constitution, traditions, and laws. It enjoys
legitimacy and the habitual obedience of its people.
15. De facto government- a government that has no constitutional basis. It exists because it has
the effective control of governmental powers. It operates against the rightful authority of
the duly constituted government. It commands the obedience of its people through force.
16. Revolutionary government- a government established either by force or by peaceful means
but not in accordance with the procedure established by the constitution. It is usually
installed for the purpose of introducing fundamental changes in the policies of the state and
in order to cope up with sweeping changes that those in power would like to introduce.

Principles Governing the Operation of Governmental Powers

a. Separation of Powers- is a principle that confines legislative powers to the legislature, the
executive powers to the executive department and the judicial powers to the judiciary.
Under this principle, the officers entrusted with the exercise of each power are not
permitted to encroach upon the powers confined to the others. The main objective of the
 separation of powers is to prevent the accumulation of powers in one department of the
government.
b. System of Check and Balance- under this principle, one department is given the authority to
check the possible excesses of the other departments so that they will only exercise the
powers entrusted to them in a manner allowed by law.
c. Blending of Powers- there are instances when the different branches of the government
participate in performing a function. While a certain function may properly belong to a
particular department, it cannot be completed without the participation of the other
departments.

Fundamental Powers of the State

a. Police Power- is the power of promoting the public welfare by restraining and regulating the use
of liberty and property. It regulates not only property but more importantly, the liberty of
private persons, and virtually all the people. Among the three inherent powers of the state, it is
the most pervasive and most extensive in its effects. It may be exercised as long as the activity
or the property sought to be regulated has some relevance to the public welfare. This power
may not be bargained away though the medium of a contract or even a treaty, owing to the
need to protect society from the inordinate assertion of individual liberty. The impairment
clause must yield to the police power whenever the contract deals with a subject affecting the
pubic welfare.
b. Power of Eminent Domain- enables the State to acquire private property upon payment of just
compensation for some intended public use. Also called the power of expropriation, this power
is described as the “highest and most exact idea of property remaining in the government” that
may be acquired for some public purpose through a method “in the nature of a compulsory sale
to the State”. It is lodged primarily in the national legislature, but its exercise may be validly
delegated to other governmental entities and, in fact, even to private corporations, serving
essential public needs or operating public utilities.
c. Power of Taxation- the State is able to demand from the members of society their
proportionate share or contribution in the maintenance of the government. Taxes are enforced
proportional contributions from persons and property, levied by the State by virtue of its
sovereignty, for the support of the government and for public goods and services, thus, it is
referred to as the “lifeblood of the nation”. Aside from being an inherent power, taxation is also
a legislative power, being exercised by the legislature through the enactment of statutes. It is
also designed to equitably distribute wealth, to protect new industries, or to uplift social
conditions. Generally, it is a process by which the political system extracts resources in any form
for common purposes.

Source: Aguja et. al., A Course Guide in Philippine Politics and Governance, 2010
Fact sheets prepared by: Glen Jornales