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Chapter 1
LOAD CALCULATIONS
In this chapter we review the structural basics of metal building systems. We begin with a
brief discussion of the structural loads (or loads, for simplicity) that the systems typically must carry,
the methods of combining these loads, and the methods of analysis.
Loads cause stresses, deformations and displacements in structures. Assessment of their
effects is carried out by the methods of structural analysis. Excess load or overloading may cause
structural failure, and hence such possibility should be either considered in the design or strictly
controlled. Engineers often evaluate structural loads based upon published regulations, contracts, or
specifications. Accepted technical standards are used for acceptance testing and inspection. Building
codes require that structures be designed and built to safely resist all actions that they are likely to
face during their service life, while remaining fit for use. Minimum loads or actions are specified in
these building codes for types of structures, geographic locations, usage and materials of
construction.
Structural loads are split into categories by their originating cause. Of course, in terms of the
actual load on a structure, there is no difference between dead or live loading, but the split occurs
for use in safety calculations or ease of analysis on complex models as follows. To meet the
requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, Building codes prescribe that, for
structural design, loads are increased by load factors. These factors are, roughly, a ratio of the
theoretical design strength to the maximum load expected in service. They are developed to help
achieve the desired level of reliability of a structure based on probabilistic studies that take into
account the load's originating cause, recurrence, distribution, and static or dynamic nature.
Dead Loads
1. Dead loads means total wt of the building including its components. This includes frames,
purlins, sheeting, bracing and connections.
2. Generally for the design of frames in STAAD, we used to take the wt for sheeting and purlins.
We will consider insulation wt if provided with weld mesh, Roof liner with sub girts.
3. Generally collateral loads used to consider in dead loads. But for the purpose of criticality, we
used to consider collateral loads like light fixing loads, false ceiling loads, solar panel loads
etc., in live loads.
1. Live load includes all loads that the structure is subjected to during erections, maintenance
and usage throughout the lifetime of the structure. Live load is specified by the applicable
code.
2. Live load refers to the weight of building occupants, furniture, storage items, portable
equipment, and partitions. Other sources of live load arise during construction, repair, or
maintenance of the building, and these are even more difficult to predict and quantify.
1. 0.57 KN/SQM is applicable as per MBMA 1986/1990 for category-1 (low hazard to human life
like agricultural buildings, temporary facility buildings, minor stage buildings) buildings.
2. The roof live load as per ASCE/MBMA codes ranges between 0.57 kN/m2 and 0.96 kN/m2.
2
3. 0.75 KN/SQM is applicable as per IS 875- 1987 PART 2. Sloping roof with slope greater than
10 degrees, For roof membrane sheets or purlins 0.75 kN/SQM less 0.02 kN/SQM for every
degree increase in slope over 10 degrees. But Subject to a minimum of 0.4 kN/SQM.
4. For curved roof with slope of line obtained by joining springing point to the crown with the
horizontal, greater than 10 degrees, ( 0.75 - 0.52 Sqr(Y) ) kN/Sqm. But Subject to a minimum
of 0.4 kN/Sqm, where y = h, l, h = the height of the highest point of the structure measured
from its springing and l = chord width of the roof singly curved and shorter of the two sides
if doubly curved.
1. To design wind-resisting structures, the engineers need to know how to quantify the wind
loading and distribute it among various building elements. Unfortunately, the wind effects on
buildings are still not perfectly understood, the continuing research results in frequent
building code revisions.
2. Most modern building codes contain maps specifying design wind speed in miles per hour or
meter per sec for various locales. Design wind speed used to be defined as the fastest-mile
wind speed measured at 10 m above the ground and having an annual return probability of
0.02.
3. The 1995 and later editions of ASCE 7 and IS 875-1987 however, define it as the maximum
three-second gust, reflecting a new method of collecting 50 years data by the National
Weather Service.
4. By using the code-provided formulas, it is possible to translate wind speed into a
corresponding velocity pressure in kilo Newton per square area. From the velocity pressure,
the design wind pressure on the building as a whole can be determined as a function of
height and exposure category that accounts for local ground surface conditions.
5. Winds can damage buildings in four basic ways:
Component damage, when a part of the building fails. Some examples include a roof
being blown off, wall siding torn out, or windows shattered.
Total collapse, when lack of rigidity or proper attachments causes the building to fall apart
like a house of sticks.
Overturning, when the building stays in one piece and topples over, owing to insufficient
weight and foundation anchorage.
Sliding, when the building stays in one piece but loses its anchorage and slides
horizontally.
6. The application of wind load on a structure varies from one code of practice to another code.
7. As per IS 875- 1987 Part 3, the design wind speed (V z) = V bK 1K 2K 3 m/s
Where, V b = Basic Wind speed m/s.
K1 = Probability factor (Risk Co-efficient).
K2 = Height And terrain factor.
K3 = Topography factor.
2
Design wind pressure Pz =0.6V z N/Sqm.
Now the wind force acting normal to individual structure (F) = ( C peC pi )AP z .
Where, Cpe = External wind co-efficient.
Cpi = Internal wind co-efficient.
A = Structural area of the structural member.
3
2
8. As per MBMA - 1996, Wind pressure (q) = 5
2.4510 V H 7
2
9. As per IS 875- 1987 part 3, percentage of openings is below 5%, we can clacify it as enclosed
building. If percentage of openings is in between 5% and 20%, we can clacify it as partially
enclosed building. If it is more than 20%, fully open.
10. As per MBMA 1996- opening condition is different. Refer the code.
1. The first classic theory holds that the majority of earthquakes originate when two segments
of the earth crust collide or move relative to each other. The movement generates seismic
waves in the surrounding soil that are perceived by humans as ground shaking; the waves
diminish with the distance from the earthquake epicentre. The wave analogy explains why
earthquakes are cyclical and repetitive in nature.
2. The second seismic axiom states that, unlike wind, earthquake forces are not externally
applied. Instead, these forces are caused by inertia of the structure that tries to resist ground
motions. As the earth starts to literally shift away from the building, it carries the building
base with it, but inertia keeps the rest of the building in place for a short while. From
Newtons first law, the movement between two parts of the building creates a force equal to
the ground acceleration times the mass of the structure. The heavier the building, the larger
the seismic force that acts on it.
3. Factors affecting the magnitude of earthquake forces on the building include the type of soil,
since certain soils tend to amplify seismic waves or even turn to a liquid like consistency (the
liquefaction phenomenon). The degree of the buildings rigidity is also important. In general
terms, the design seismic force is inversely related to the fundamental period of vibration;
the force is also affected by the type of the buildings lateral load-resisting system.
4. The notion of ductility, or ability to deform without breaking, is central to modern seismic
design philosophy. Far from being just desirable, ductility is fundamental to the process of
determining the level of seismic forces. The building codes may not explicitly state this, but a
certain level of ductility is required in order for the code provisions to be valid.
5. Without ductility, the design forces could easily have been four or five times larger than
those presently specified. The systems possessing ductile properties, such as properly
detailed moment-resisting frames, may be designed for smaller seismic forces than those
with less ductility, such as shear walls and braced frames.
6. Most building codes agree that the structures designed in accordance with their seismic
code provisions should resist minor earthquakes without damage, moderate earthquakes
without structural damage, but with some non-structural damage, and major ones without
collapse.
7. Since the magnitude of the actual earthquake forces is highly unpredictable, the goal of
collapse avoidance requires the structure to deform but not to break under repeated major
overload. The structure should be able to stretch well past its elastic region in order to
dissipate the earthquake-generated energy.
8. To achieve this goal, the codes are filled with many prescriptive requirements and design
limitations; particular attention is given to the design details, since any disruption of the load
path destroys the system.
9. It is important to keep in mind that real-life seismic forces are dynamic rather than static,
even though their effects are commonly approximated in practice by a so-called equivalent
static force method. This method is used partly for practicality, as dynamic analysis methods
are quite cumbersome for routine office use, and partly for comparison of the results to
those of wind-load analysis and using the controlling loading to design against overturning,
sliding, and other modes of failure.
10. The actual formulas for determination of seismic forces differ widely among the building
codes and even among the various code editions. In general, these formulas start with the
5
weight of the structure and multiply it by several coefficients accounting for all the factors
discussed above.
Z
I
2
1. Horizontal seismic co-efficient, (Ah) = S a
R
g
Where, Z= Zone factor,
I = Importance factor,
R= Response reduction factor,
Sa/g = Average response acceleration co-efficient.
Design Seismic Base shear, VB = Ah * W
Where W = Seismic wt of the building.
Load = Dead load + 50% of Live load (If LL >3.5 kN/Sqm)
Dead load + 25% of Live load (If LL <3.5 kN/Sqm)
W i H 2i
VB n
2. If no of floors are there, then seismic Base shear along height (Q i) =
W j H 2j
j =1
Where W= Seismic weight of the floor.
H = Height of the floor measured from base.
1. For vertical loads for electric overhead cranes, we have to consider 25 percent of maximum
static loads for crane girders for all classes of cranes.
2. For Horizontal forces transverse to rails, we have to consider 10 percent of weight of crab
and the weight lifted by the cranes, acting on any one crane track rail. acting in either
direction and equally distributed amongst all the wheels on one side of rail track.
3. For Horizontal traction forces along the rails for overhead cranes, either electrically operated
or hand operated, we have to consider 5 percent of all static wheel loads.
1. Wheel load: The maximum wheel load for a bridge crane shall be calculated as the end truck
wheel load produced with the trolley loaded at rated capacity and positioned at the same
end of the bridge as the wheel load being calculated.
6
2. Vertical impact: The maximum wheel load used for the design of runway beams, including
monorails, their connections and support brackets, shall be increased by the percentage of
25 % for cab operated electrical cranes.
3. Lateral force: The lateral force on bridge crane runway beams with electrically powered
trolleys shall be calculated as 20 percent of the sum of the rated capacity of the crane and
the weight of the hoist and trolley.
4. Longitudinal force: Runway beams, including monorails, their connections, and the
longitudinal bracing system shall be designed to support horizontal forces calculated as 10
percent of the maximum wheel loads excluding vertical impact.
S DETAIL
No TYPES OF CRANES
1 These type of Cranes moves on crane beams rests on main frame
GANTRY CRANES columns
2 This type of Cranes moves on crane beams one side rests on main
SEMI GANTRY frame column, another side column comes along with crane
3 The monorail crane moves only in direction. The wheels of which
MONO RAIL ride on the bottom flange of a single runway beam.
4 These cranes are connected to single column. It turns circularly by
JIB CRANES carrying loads.
WALL MOUNTED It moves as like gantry cranes, but supports on a single column like
5 CRANES(CONSOLE cantilever beam and carries loads. Three crane beams are required
CRANES) to support these type of cranes.
1.5(DL+CL) 1.0(DL+CL)
1.5DL+1.5LL+1.05CL 0.75(DL+0.5WL+CL)
1.5DL+1.05LL+1.5CL 0.75(CR WT+SL)
1.2DL+1.2LL+1.05CL+0.6WL)
1.2DL+1.2LL+1.05CL+1.2WL)
1.2DL+1.05LL+1.2CL+0.6WL)
1.2DL+1.05LL+1.2CL+1.2WL)
1.2DL+1.2LL+1.05CL+0.6SL)
1.2DL+1.2LL+1.05CL+1.2SL)
1.2DL+1.05LL+1.2CL+0.6SL)
1.2DL+1.05LL+1.2CL+1.2SL)
CHAPTER-12
0.9DL+2.5SL
1.2DL+0.5LL+2.5SL
COMBINATION FOR SERVICEABILITY 1.0(DL+LL) 1.0(DL+LL)
1.0(DL+WL) 1.0(DL+WL)
1.0(DL+SL) 1.0(DL+SL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8WL 1.0(DL+LL+0.5WL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8SL 1.0(DL+0.5LL+SL)
CRANE-CL CRANE -CL
1.0(DL+CL) 1.0(DL+CL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8CL 1.0(DL+0.5WL+CL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8CL+0.8WL 1.0(CR WT+SL)
1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8CL+0.8SL
SECTION LIMITAION
Fw/Ft 23 30
Wd/Wt 170 137.5
Wd/Fw 5 or 6 5 or 6
Ft/Wt 2.5 2.5
EFFECTIVE LENGTH (KZ) 2 (PINNED SUPPORT) 2(PINNED SUPPORT)
1.2(FIXED SUPPORT) 1.2(FIXED SUPPORT)
BRACING ANGLE-->TUBE ROD-->ANGLE-->TUBE
L/350 (ANGLE -- EXCL SEC
SLENDERNESS RATIO 12) L/350
L/350 (TUBE -- EXCL SEC 12) L/350
L/120 (TUBE -- INCL SEC 12)
WELDING DOUBLE SIDE WELDING SINGLE SIDE WELDING
DL BASED ON MATERIAL BASED ON MATERIAL
LL 0.75 0.57
CODE OF PRACTISE
BUILT-UP SECTIONS IS 800 - 2007 AISC-1989
COLD FORMED SECTIONS IS801 AISI
WIND LOAD IS875-PART-3 ASCE-7
SESMIC LOAD IS1893-2002 ASCE-7
The material properties of the structural steel members are as listed below.
Youngs modulus, E - 210,000N/mm2
Shear Modulus, G - 80,000 N/mm2
Density - 7850 kg/m3
Poissons ratio - 0.3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion- 11.7 x 10 -6/0C
1. Generally for all built-up sections, and secondaries are 345 Mpa Strength materials are using.
2. All hot rolled members are 250 Mpa are using.
3. Sheeting is 345 Mpa and 550Mpa.
4. All bolts, anchor bolts are considered as 345 Mpa.
10
Chapter 2
GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
Planning and organising different buildings is an important step for designed before proceeds
with the design of individual components. The following parameters of the building configurations
effects the building efficiency and economy.
1. Main frame configuration (Orientation, type, roof slope and eave ht.)
2. End wall system (type and spacing)
3. Bay spacing (Optimum)
4. Expansion joints (number and location)
5. Bracing system and arrangement (number and location)
6. Roof purlins and wall girts ( Type, connection, lap length and spacing of purlins or girts.)
7. Mezzanine floor - beams/columns (type, loading, orientation and spacing)
8. Crane system (Capacity and service class)
As per IS 800 -2007, expansion joint can be given for every 180m. Generally we can give
expansion joint for every 220m.
3.1.3. Tension
The criteria governing the capacity of Tension members are based on:
Design Strength due to Yielding in Gross Section
Design Strength due to Rupture of Critical Section
Design Strength due to Block Shear
STAAD calculates the tension capacity of a given member based on these three limit states.
The limit state of yielding in the gross section is intended to prevent excessive elongation of the
member, and the corresponding check is done as per section 6.2 of the code. The Design strength,
involving rupture at the section with the net effective area, is evaluated as per section 6.3 of the
code. Here, the number of bolts in the connection may be specified through the use of the design
parameter ALPHA.
The Design strength, involving block shear at an end connection, is evaluated as per section
6.4 of the code. This criteria is made optional by the parameter DBS. If the value of DBS is specified
as 1, additional design parameters AVG, AVN, ATG, and ATN must be supplied to the program for that
member. The Net Section Area may be specified through the use of the parameter NSF.
3.1.4. Compression
The design capacity of the section against Compressive Force, the guiding phenomenon is
the flexural buckling. The buckling strength of the member is affected by residual stress, initial bow
and accidental eccentricities of load. To account for all these factors, the strength of the members
subjected to axial compression is defined by buckling class a, b, c or d as per clause 7.1.2.2 and Table
7 of IS 800:2007. Imperfection factor, obtained from buckling class, and Eulers Buckling Stress
ultimately govern compressive force capacity of the section as per clause 7.1.2 of IS 800:2007.
Slender Sections
For member with slender section under axial compression, design compressive strength should be
calculated on area ignoring depth thickness ratio of web in excess of the class 3 (semi-compact)
limit.
Refer to clause 7.3.2 and Table 2 of IS 800:2007, (corresponding to Internal Element of Compression
Flange)
Ae= Ag - (d/tw - 42) tw^2
Where:
Ae = Effective area of section.
Ag = Gross area of section.
d = Depth of web.
tw = thickness of web.
3.1.6. Shear
The design capacities of the section against Shear Force in major- and minor-axis directions are
evaluated as per section 8.4 of the code, taking care of the following phenomena:
Nominal Plastic Shear Resistance
Resistance to Shear Buckling
Shear area of the sections are calculated as per sec. 8.4.1.1. Nominal plastic shear resistance is
calculated as per sec. 8.4.1. Among shear buckling design methods, Simple post-critical method is
adopted as per sec. 8.4.2.2(a).
Slender Sections
Slender sections should be verified against shear buckling resistance if d/tw > 67 for web
without stiffeners or if it exceeds 67 (Kv5.35) for a web with stiffeners. Design methods for
resistance to shear buckling are described in clause 8.4.2.2 of IS:800-2007 code.
Vn = Vcr
Where:
Vcr = shear force corresponding to web buckling = Av x b
b = shear stress corresponding to web buckling, determined as follows:
When w 0.8 b= fyw3
When 0.8 < w < 1.2 b= [1 - 0.8(w - 0.8) ](fyw3)
When w 1.2 b= fyw((3 w
Where w = Non-dimensional web slenderness ratio or shear buckling stress, given by:
= [ fyw(3 cr,e )]1/2
cr,e = elastic critical shear stress of the web
= (kv2E)/[12(1 - 2 ) (dtw)2]
Where
= Poissons ratio and
Kv = 5.35 when transverse stiffeners are provided only at supports
= 4.0 + 5.35/(c/d)2 for c/d < 1.0
= 5.35 + 4.0/(c/d)2 for c/d 1.0
where, c = spacing of transverse stiffeners
d = depth of the web
3.1.5. Bending
The design bending moment capacity of a section is primarily dependent on whether the
member is laterally supported or unsupported. You can control the lateral support condition of the
member by the use of LAT parameter.
If the member is laterally supported, then the design strength is calculated as per the
provisions of the section 8.2.1 of IS 800:2007, based on the following factors:
Whether section with webs susceptible to shear buckling before yielding
Shear Force to Design Shear Strength Ratio
Section Classification
If the member is laterally unsupported, then the design strength is calculated as per the
provisions of the section 8.2.2 of IS 800:2007, based on the following factors:
Lateral Torsional Buckling
Section Classification
Combined Interaction Check
Slender Sections
For member with slender section subjected to bending, moment is taken by flanges alone.
Design bending strength should be calculated with effective elastic modulus disregarding the
contribution of web of the section.
Zez = 2[ Bf x tf^3/12 + (Bf x tf) x (D/2 - tf/2)2 )] (0.5 x D)
Zey = 2( Bf x tf^3/12) (0.5 x Bf)
Where:
Zez = Elastic Section modulus about major principal axis.
Zey = Elastic Section modulus about minor principal axis.
Bf = Width of flange.
Tf = thickness of flange.
D = Overall depth of section.
The Moment Capacity will be Md = Ze fy/m0 for Laterally Supported condition.
The Moment Capacity will be Md = Ze fbd/m0 for Laterally Un-Supported condition.
Where, fbd is defined in clause 8.2.2 of IS 800 - 2007.
cc=
2 2 E
Fy
The maximum diagonal spacing of bolts, rivets or intermittent welds connection two rolled in
contact shall not exceed 600mm In addition, for painted members and unpainted members not
subject to corrosion where the outside component consists of a plate, the maximum longitudinal
spacing shall not exceed:
127/ F y times the thickness of the outside plate nor 300mm when fasteners are not
staggered along adjacent gage lines.
190/ F y times the thickness of the outside plate nor 450mm when fasteners are staggered
along adjacent gage lines.
Compression members composed of two or more rolled shapes separated by intermittent
fillers shall be connected at these fillers at intervals such that the slenderness ratio KlIr of either
shape, between the fasteners, does not exceed 3/4 times the governing slenderness ratio of the
built-up member. Open sides of compression members built up from plates or shapes shall be
provided with lacing having tie plates at each end and at intermediate points if the lacing is
interrupted. Tie plates shall be as near the ends as practicable. In main members carrying calculated
stress, the end tie plates shall have a length of not less than the distance between the lines of
fasteners or welds connecting them to the components of the member. Intermediate tie plates shall
have a length not less than Yz of this distance. The thickness of tie plates shall not be less than 1/50
of the distance between the lines of fasteners or welds connecting them to the components of the
member. In bolted and riveted construction, the spacing in the direction of stress in tie plates shall
not be more than 6 diameters and the tie plates shall be connected to each component by at least 3
fasteners. In welded construction, the welding on each line connecting a tie plate shall aggregate not
less than 1/3 the length of the plate.
Lacing includes flat bars, angles, channels or other shapes employed as lacing, shall be so
spaced that the ratio l/r of the flange included between their connections shall not exceed 3/4 times
the governing ratio for member as a whole. Lacing shaII be proportioned to resist a shearing stress
normal to the axis of the member equal to 2% of the total compressive stress in the member. The
ratio l/r for lacing bars arranged in single systems shall not exceed 140. For double lacing this ratio
shall not exceed 200. Double lacing bars shall be joined at their intersections. For lacing bars in
compression the unsupported length of the lacing bar shall be taken as the distance between
fasteners or welds connecting it to the components of the built-up member for single lacing, and
70% of that distance for double lacing. The inclination of lacing bars to the axis of the member shall
preferably be not less than 600 for single lacing and 450 for double lacing. When the distance
between the lines of fasteners or welds in the flanges is more than 15 in., the lacing preferably shall
be double or be made of angles. the ratio of length (in direction of stress) to width of holes shall not
exceed 2; the clear distance between holes in the direction of stress shall be not less than the
transverse distance between nearest lines of connecting fasteners or welds; and the periphery of the
holes at all points shall have a minimum radius of 38mm.
2.2.4. Bending Stress
This chapter applies to compact and non-compact prismatic members subject to flexure and
shear. Beams shall be distinguished from plate girders on the basis of the web slenderness ratio h/t,.
When this value is greater than 970/(Fy) the allowable bending stress is given in Chapter G6.
The purpose of bending coefficient Cb is to account for the influence of the moment gradient
on lateral-torsional buckling. This coefficient can be specified by the user through the use of
parameter CB (see Table 2.6) or may be calculated by the program (if CB is specified as 0.0). In the
absence of the parameter CB, a default value of 1.0 will be used. The procedure for calculation of
design strength for flexure also accounts for the presence of residual stresses of rolling. To specify
laterally unsupported length, either of the parameters UNB and UNT can be used.
ASD(Allowable Stress Design)
(i). When Lb Lr
When Allowable bending stress for tension and compression for a symmetrical member
loaded in the plane of its minor axis, Fb = 0.66Fy
If meeting the requirements of this section of:
Compact sections (bf/2tf 65/(Fy) and bf/tf 190/(Fy), d/t 640(1 - 3.74 (fa/Fy))/(Fy) when
(fa/Fy) < 0.16, or than 257/(Fy) if (fa/Fy) > 0.16 )
Lb Lr (The laterally unsupported length shall not exceed 76.0 bf/Fy (except for pipes or tubes),
nor 20,000/(d Fy/Af))
If for these symmetrical members, the section is Semi-compact section (bf/2tf exceeds
65/(Fy), but is less than 95/(Fy)),
(
Fb =F v 0.790.002
( ))
bf
2tf
Fy
When
102 103 Cb l
Fy
rT
510 103 C b
Fy
[ ]
2
Fb =
2
T
Fy
( rl )
F 0.6 F y
3 1530 103 C b y
When l
rT
>
510 103 Cb
Fy
[ ]
3
170 10 C b
Fb = 2
0.6 F y
l
( )
rT
where
I = distance between cross sections braced against twist or lateral displacement of the compression
flange, in. For cantilevers braced against twist only at the support, 1 may conservatively be taken as
the actual length.
r, = radius of gyration of a section comprising the compression flange plus 1/3 of the compression
web area, taken about an axis in the plane of the web, in.
2
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05 (M1/M2) + 0.3 (M1/M2) , but not more than 2.3
Tension and compression for the double symmetric (I & H) sections with bf/2tf less than
65/(Fy) and bent about their minor axis, Fb = 0.75 Fy. If bf/2tf exceeds 65/(Fy), but is less than
95/(Fy), Fb = Fy(1.075 - 0.005(bf/2tf)(Fy).
LRFD(Load and Resistance Factor Design)
In LRFD, the flexural design strength of a member is determined by the limit state of lateral
torsional buckling. Inelastic bending is allowed and the basic measure of flexural capacity is the
plastic moment capacity of the section. The flexural resistance is a function of plastic moment
capacity, actual laterally unbraced length, limiting laterally unbraced length, buckling moment and
the bending coefficient. The limiting laterally unbraced length Lr and buckling moment Mr are
functions of the section geometry and are calculated as per the procedure of Chapter F.
The nominal flexural strength (Mn) is the lowest value obtained according to the limit states
of: (a) yielding; (b) lateral-torsional buckling; (c) flange local buckling; and (d) web local buckling. For
laterally braced compact beams with Lb Lp, only the limit state of yielding is applicable. For
unbraced compact beams and non-compact tees and double angles, only the limit states of yielding
and lateral-torsional buckling are applicable. The lateral-torsional buckling limit state is not
applicable to members subject to bending about the minor axis, or to square or circular shapes. This
section applies to homogeneous and hybrid shapes with at least one axis of symmetry and which are
subject to simple bending about one principal axis. For simple bending, the beam is loaded in a plane
parallel to a principal axis that passes through the shear centre or the beam is restrained against
twisting at load points and supports. Only the limit states of yielding and lateral-torsional buckling
are considered in this section. The lateral-torsional buckling provisions are limited to doubly
symmetric shapes, channels, double angles, and tees.
1. For Yielding
Mn = 1.5 My = 1.5 (Fy x S)
2. For Lateral Torsional Buckling
(i). When Lb Lr
[
M n=C b M p (M p M r )
[ ]]
LbL p
Lr L p
Mp
[ [ ] ]
2
C E
M n= b EI y GJ + I yCw M p
Lb Lb
Where,
Lb = distance between points braced against lateral displacement of the compression flange, or
between points braced to prevent twist of the cross section, in. (mm)
Lp = limiting laterally unbraced length as defined below, in. (mm)
Lr = limiting laterally unbraced length as defined below, in. (mm)
Mr = limiting buckling moment as defined below, kip-in. (N-mm)
In the above equation, Cb is a modification factor for non-uniform moment diagrams where,
when both ends of the beam segment are braced:
12.5 M max
Cb =
2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M C
where
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced segment, kip-in. (N-mm)
MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment, kip-in. (N-mm)
MB = absolute value of moment at centerline of the unbraced beam segment, kip-in. (N-mm)
MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced beam segment, kip-in. (N-
mm)
Cb is permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0 for all cases. Equations F1-4 and F1-6 are
conservatively based on Cb = 1.0. For cantilevers or overhangs where the free end is unbraced, Cb =
1.0.
The limiting unbraced length, Lp, shall be determined as follows.
L p=1.76 r y
E
F yf
The limiting laterally unbraced length Lr and the corresponding buckling moment Mr shall be
determined as follows.
r y X1
Lr =
FL
1+ 1+ X 2 F 2L
M r=F L S x
X 1=
Sx
EGJA
2
2
X 2=
I y GJ[ ]
4 Cw S x
Where,
Sx = section modulus about major axis, (mm3)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, (200 000 MPa)
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel, (77 200 MPa)
FL = smaller of (Fyf _ Fr) or Fyw ,(MPa)
Fr = compressive residual stress in flange 69 MPa for rolled shapes, 114 MPa for welded built-up
shapes.
Fyf = yield stress of flange, (MPa)
Fyw = yield stress of web, (MPa)
Iy = moment of inertia about y-axis, (mm4)
Cw = warping constant, (mm6)
2.2.5. Design for Shear
The Design Shear Strength (LRFD), (v x Vn), and the Allowable Shear Strength (ASD), (Vn/v), are
calculated by the program, as per the AISC 9th edition specifications.
This section applies to unstiffened webs of singly or doubly symmetric beams, including
hybrid beams, and channels subject to shear in the plane of the web. For the design shear strength
of webs with stiffeners, see Appendix F2 or Appendix G3.
ASD(ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN)
For h/tw < 380/(Fy), on the overall depth times the web thickness, the allowable shear
stress is Fv = 0.40 Fy
For 380/(Fy) < h/tw < 260, the allowable shear stress is on the clear distance between
Fy
flanges times the web thickness is F v= ( C ) 0.40 F y
2.89 v
45000 k v
C v= 2
Where, h , When Cv < 0.8
Fy
( )
tw
190
h
tw
kv
Fy , When Cv >0.8.
5.34
Where, Kv = 4.00 + a 2 when a/h <1
h ()
4.00
2
= 5.34 + a when a/h >1
()
h
tw = thickness of web, in.
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, in.
h = clear distance between flanges at the section under investigation, in.
LRFD(Load and Resistance Factor Design
The design shear strength of unstiffened webs, with h / tw 260, v = 0.90
(a) For h / tw < 2.45 E / Fyw
Vn = 0.6Fyw Aw
(b) For 2.45 E / Fyw < h / tw < 3.07 E / Fyw
( )
E
2.45
F yw
V n=0.6 F yw A w
h
tw
The general design shear strength of webs with or without stiffeners is given in Appendix
F2.2. The Nominal Shear Strength, Vn, of un-stiffened or stiffened webs, is calculated taking care of
limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling. The sections G4 to G7 of the code specifications are
used to evaluate Nominal Shear Strength, Vn for different types of rolled sections.
2.2.6. Design for Combined Forces
The strength of members subjected to combined stresses shall be determined according to the
provisions of this chapter H. The interaction of flexure and axial forces in singly and doubly
symmetric shapes is governed by sections H1 and H3. These interaction formulas cover the general
case of biaxial bending combined with axial force and torsion. They are also valid for uni-axial
bending and axial force.
ASD(allowable stress design)
Axial Compression and Bending:
Members subjected to both axial compression and bending stresses shall be proportioned to satisfy
the following requirements:
fa Cmx f bx C my f by
+ + 1.0
Fa fa fa
( 1
F '
ex
) (
F bx 1
F '
ey
) F by
(H1-1)
fa f f
+ bx + by 1.0 (H1-2)
0.6 F y F bx F by
When fa/Fa 0.15, Equation (Hl-3) is permitted in lieu of Equations (Hl-1) and (Hl-2):
f a f bx f by
+ + 1.0 (H1-3)
F a F bx F by
Where,
Fa = axial compressive stress that would be permitted if axial force alone existed, ksi
Fb = compressive bending stress that would be permitted if bending moment alone existed, ksi
'
Fey = Euler stress divided by a factor of safety, ksi (In the expression for FL, Eb is the actual
unbraced length in the plane of bending and rb is the corresponding radius of gyration. K is the
12 2 E
K lb 2
effective length factor in the plane of bending.) =
23
( )rb
fa = computed axial stress, ksi
fb = computed compressive bending stress at the point under consideration, ksi
Cm= Coefficient whose value shall be taken as follows:
a. For compression members in frames subject to joint translation (sidesway), Cm = 0.85.
b. For rotationally restrained compression members in frames braced against joint translation and
not subject to transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending,
Cm =0.60.4 (M 1/ M 2)
where M1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger moments at the ends of that portion of the
member unbraced in the plane of bending under consideration. M,/M2 is positive when the
member is bent in reverse curvature, negative when bent in single curvature.
c. For compression members in frames braced against joint translation in the plane of loading and
subjected to transverse loading between their supports, the value of Cm may be determined by
an analysis. However, in lieu of such analysis, the following values are permitted:
For members whose ends are restrained against rotation in the plane of bending, Cm = 0.85
For members whose ends are unrestrained against rotation in the plane of bending, Cm = 1.0
Axial Tension and Bending:
Members subject to both axial tension and bending stresses shall be proportioned at all points along
their length to satisfy the following equation:
f a f bx f by
+ + 1.0
F t F bx Fby
where fb is the computed bending tensile stress, fa is the computed axial tensile stress, Fb is the
allowable bending stress and Ft is the governing allowable tensile stress.
LRFD(Load and Resistance Factor Design)
Axial Tension and Bending:
The interaction of flexure and tension in symmetric shapes shall be limited by Equations H1-1a and
H1-1b.
Pu Pu 8 M ux M uy
i. For
Pn
0.2, + ( +
Pn 9 b M nx b M ny )
1.0
Pu Pu M ux M uy
i. For
Pn
< 0.2, + ( +
2 Pn b M nx b M ny )
1.0
where
Pu = required tensile strength, kips (N)
Pn = nominal tensile strength determined in accordance with Section D1, kips (N)
Mu = required flexural strength determined in accordance with Section C1, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mn = nominal flexural strength determined in accordance with Section F1, kip-in. (N-mm)
x = subscript relating symbol to strong axis bending
y = subscript relating symbol to weak axis bending
= t = resistance factor for tension (see Section D1)
b = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
Axial Compression and Bending:
The interaction of flexure and compression in symmetric shapes shall be limited by above equations.
where
Pu = required compressive strength, kips (N)
Pn = nominal compressive strength determined in accordance with Section E2, kips (N)
= c = resistance factor for compression = 0.85 (see Section E2)
b = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
symmetric) ()b
0.38
E
Fy
0.38
Kc E
FL
t
Flexure in web of I shaped
sections (singly or doubly
h
3.76
E
Fy
5.70
E
Fy
symmetric) ( )
tw
As per Table B4.1
Where,
4
K C=
h , but shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
tw
FL = 0.7Fy for minor-axis bending, major axis bending of slender-web built-up I-shaped members,
and major axis bending of compact and non-compact web built-up I-shaped members with Sxt /Sxc
0.7; FL = FySxt /Sxc 0.5Fy for major-axis bending of compact and non-compact web built-up I-
shaped members with Sxt /Sxc < 0.7.
2.3.3 Limit States
2.3.3.1 Axial Tension
The design tensile strength, t Pn, and the allowable tensile strength, Pn/ t , of tension
members, shall be the lower value obtained according.
Tensile Yielding in Gross Section.
Pn=F y A g
t =0.9 ( LRFD ) t =1.67( ASD)
Tensile Rupture of Net Section.
Pn=F u A e
t =0.75 ( LRFD ) t =2.00( ASD)
where
Ae = effective net area, in.2 (mm2)
Ag = gross area of member, in.2 (mm2)
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, (MPa)
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the type of steel being used,(MPa)
The limit state of yielding in the gross section is intended to prevent excessive elongation of
the member, and the corresponding check is done as per section D2-(a) of the code.
The second limit state involves fracture at the section with the minimum effective net area,
and the corresponding check is done as per section D2-(b) of the code. The effective area of tension
members shall be determined as follows: Ae = AnxU
where U, the shear lag factor, is determined as shown in Table. Members such as single
angles, double angles and WT sections shall have connections proportioned such that U is equal to or
greater than 0.60. with 4 or more fasteners per line in direction of loading, U = 0.80. with 2 or 3
fasteners per line in the direction of loading, U = 0.60.
For members designed on the basis of tension, the slenderness ratio L/r preferably should not
exceed 300. This suggestion does not apply to rods or hangers in tension.
STAAD calculates the tension capacity of a given member based on these two limit states.
The Net Section Area may be specified by the user through the use of the parameter NSF . The
Effective Net Area of tension members can be determined by using the Shear Lag Factor. You can also
input the shear lag factor through the use of the parameter SLF.
Tensile Strength
The design tensile strength, ft Pn, and the allowable tensile strength, Pn/_t, of pin-connected
members, shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of tensile rupture, shear
rupture, bearing, and yielding.
Tensile Yielding in Gross Section.
Pn=F y A g
t =0.9 ( LRFD ) t =1.67( ASD)
For tensile rupture on the net effective area
Pn=2 tb eff Fu
t =0.75 ( LRFD ) t =2.00( ASD)
For shear rupture on the effective area
Pn=0.6 F u A sf
t =0.75 ( LRFD ) t =2.00( ASD)
where
Asf = 2t(a + d/2), (mm2)
a = shortest distance from edge of the pin hole to the edge of the member measured parallel to the
direction of the force, (mm)
beff = 2t + 0.63, in. (= 2t + 16, mm) but not more than the actual distance from the edge of the hole
to the edge of the part measured in the direction normal to the applied force.
d = pin diameter, (mm)
t = thickness of plate, (mm)
Limit state of flexural buckling: The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be determined based on
the limit state of flexural buckling.
Pn=F cr A g
The flexural buckling stress, Fcr, is determined as follows:
KL
E
[ ]F
QF y
i. When 4.71 , Fe
r QF y FCr =Q 0.658 y
ii.
Where,
When
KL
r
> 4.71
E
QF y
, FCr =0.877 F e
2
E
2
Fe = elastic critical buckling stress = KL
( ) r
Limit states of flexural-torsional and torsional buckling: The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall
be determined based on the limit states of flexural-torsional and torsional buckling, as follows:
Pn=F cr A g
The flexural buckling stress, Fcr, is determined as follows:
KL E
[ ]F
QF y
i. When 4.71 , Fe
r QF y FCr =Q 0.658 y
ii.
Where,
When
KL
r
> 4.71
E
QF y , FCr =0.877 F e
[( ]
2
E Cw 1
+GJ
Fe = elastic critical buckling stress = KL
2
Ix+I y
r )
Ag = gross area of member, (mm2)
Cw = warping constant, (mm6)
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel = 77 200 MPa
Ix , Iy = moment of inertia about the principal axes, (mm4)
J = torsional constant, (mm4)
Q = 1.0 for members with compact and non-compact sections, as defined in Section B4, for uniformly
compressed elements
= QsQa for members with slender-element sections, as defined in Section B4, for uniformly
compressed elements.
For cross sections composed of only unstiffened slender elements, Q = Qs (Qa = 1.0). For
cross sections composed of only stiffened slender elements, Q = Qa (Qs = 1.0). For cross sections
composed of both stiffened and unstiffened slender elements, Q = QsQa.
Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs
i.
b
When 0.64
t
E KC
Fy , Qs=1
0.90 E K c
Qs=1.4150.65 ( bt ) EKF
y
iii.
b
When > 1.17
t
E KC
Fy ,
Q s=
Fy () b
t
2
where
4
kc=
h and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes
tw
Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa
The reduction factor, Qa, for slender stiffened elements is defined as follows:
A
Q a=
Aeff
where
A = total cross-sectional area of member, (mm2)
Aeff = summation of the effective areas of the cross section based on the reduced effective width, be,
(mm2)
The reduced effective width, be, is determined for uniformly compressed slender elements,
[ ( ) ]
E 0.34 E
be =1.92 t 1 b
with
b
t
1.49
E
f
, f b
t
f
The Nominal Compressive Strength, Pn, for a particular member is calculated by STAAD
according to the procedure outlined in Chapter E, section E3 to E5, of the unified code specifications.
For slender elements, the procedure described in section E7 is used. Effective length for calculation
of compression resistance may be provided through the use of the parameters KY, KZ. If not
provided, the entire member length will be taken into consideration. In addition to the compression
resistance criterion, compression members are required to satisfy slenderness limitations which are a
function of the nature of use of the member (main load resisting component, bracing member, etc.).
For members designed on the basis of compression, the slenderness ratio KL/r preferably should not
exceed 200. In both the member selection and code checking process, STAAD immediately does a
slenderness check on appropriate members before continuing with other procedures for determining
the adequacy of a given member.
2.3.3.3 Flexural Design Strength
This chapter applies to members subject to simple bending about one principal axis. For
simple bending, the member is loaded in a plane parallel to a principal axis that passes through the
shear centre or is restrained against twisting at load points and supports.
The Design Flexural Strength (LRFD), bMn, and the Allowable Flexural Strength (ASD),
Mn/b, are being calculated by the program. The Nominal Flexural Strength, Mn, is determined
according to Sections F2 through F12 of unified code specifications, for different types of sections.
The design flexural strength, fbMn, and the allowable flexural strength, Mn/_b, shall be
determined as follows:
(1) For all provisions in this chapter
t =0.75 ( LRFD ) t =2.00 ( ASD )
and the nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be determined according to Sections F2 through F5.
(2) The provisions in this chapter are based on the assumption that points of support for beams and
girders are restrained against rotation about their longitudinal axis.
The following terms are common to the equations in this chapter except where noted:
Cb = lateral-torsional buckling modification factor for non-uniform moment diagrams when both
ends of the unsupported segment are braced.
12.5 M max
Cb = R 3.0
2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M C m
where
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced segment, (N-mm)
MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment, (N-mm)
MB = absolute value of moment at centre line of the unbraced beam segment, (N-mm)
MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced beam segment, (N mm)
Cb is permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0 for all cases. For cantilevers or overhangs
where the free end is unbraced, Cb = 1.0. The program internally calculates the Lateral-Torsional
Buckling Modification Factor (Cb) for non-uniform moment diagrams when both ends of the
unsupported segment are braced. The purpose of this factor is to account for the influence of the
moment gradient on lateral-torsional buckling. To specify laterally unsupported length, the
parameter UNF can be used, by default which takes the value of the member length.
Rm = cross-section mono-symmetry parameter = 1.0, doubly symmetric members and singly
symmetric members subjected to single curvature bending
Iy = moment of inertia about the principal y-axis, (mm4)
Iyc = moment of inertia about y-axis referred to the compression flange, or if reverse curvature
bending, referred to the smaller flange, (mm4)
The chapter is organized as follows:
F2: Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members Bent about Their Major Axis
F3: Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Compact Webs and Non-compact or Slender Flanges
Bent about Their Major Axis
F4: Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or Non-compact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis
F5: Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about Their Major Axis
F6: I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about Their Minor Axis.
The Nominal Flexural Strength of a member is determined by the limit states of Yielding (Y),
Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB), Flange Local Buckling (FLB), Web Local Buckling (WLB), Tension
Flange Yielding (TFY), Leg Local Buckling (LLB), and Local Buckling (LB).
Y = yielding, LTB = lateral-torsional buckling, FLB = flange local buckling, WLB = web local buckling, TFY = tension flange
yielding, LLB = leg local buckling, LB = local buckling, C = compact, NC = non-compact, S = slender
F2: Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members Bent about Their Major Axis
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of
yielding (plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling.
1. Yielding
M n=M p=F y Z x
Where,
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, ksi (MPa)
Zx = plastic section modulus about the x-axis, in.3 (mm3)
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
(i) When Lb L p, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(ii). When LP < Lb Lr
[
M n=C b M p (M p0.7 F y S x )
[ Lb L p
LrL p ]]
Mp
L p=1.76 r y
E
Fy
Lr = The limiting laterally unbraced length Lr and the corresponding buckling moment Mr shall be
determined as follows.
2
Lr=1.95 r ts
E
Jc
0.7 F y S x h0
1+ 1+6.76
0.7 F y S x h0
E Jc ( )
If the square root term in above equation is conservatively taken equal to 1, the above
equation becomes
Where,
Lr= r ts
E
0.7 F y
, this approximation can be extremely conservative.
r ts =
I y Cw
Sx
c = 1, for a doubly symmetric I-shape
ho = distance between the flange centroids, (mm)
Sx = section modulus about major axis, (mm3)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, (200 000 MPa)
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel, (77 200 MPa)
Fy = yield stress of steel, (MPa)
Iy = moment of inertia about y-axis, (mm4)
Cw = warping constant, (mm6)
F3: Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Compact Webs and Non-compact or Slender
Flanges Bent about Their Major Axis:
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit
states of lateral-torsional buckling and compression flange local buckling.
1. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
For lateral-torsional buckling, the provisions of above Section shall apply.
2. Compression Flange Local Buckling
(i) For sections with non-compact flanges
[
M n=C b M p (M p0.7 F y S x )
[ pf
rf pf ]]
Mp
h and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
tw
F4: Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or Non-compact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis:
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit
states of compression flange yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, compression flange local buckling
and tension flange yielding.
1. Compression Flange Yielding
M n=R pc M yc =R pc F y S xc
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
(i) When Lb L p, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(ii). When LP < Lb Lr
[
M n=C b R pc M yc (R pc M ycF L S xc )
[ LbL p
Lr L p]]
R pc M yc
) [ [ ]]
2 2
Cb E J Lb
Fcr = 1+0.078 Mp
Lb
2
S xc h0 rt , The square root term in the equation may be
( rt
conservatively taken equal to 1.0.
For Iyc/Iy 0.23, J shall be taken as zero.
The stress, FL, is determined as follows:
S xt
(i) For 0.7, F L=0.7 F y
S xc
S xt S
(ii) For < 0.7, F L =F y xt 0.5 F y
S xc S xc
The limiting unbraced length, Lp, shall be determined as follows.
L p=1.1 r t
E
Fy
The limiting laterally unbraced length Lr and the corresponding buckling moment Mr shall be
determined as follows.
2
Lr=1.95 r t
E Jc
F L S xc h 0
F S h
1+ 1+6.76 L xc 0
E J ( )
The web plastification factor, Rpc, is determined as follows:
hc M
(i) For pw , R pc = p
tw M yc
(ii) For
hc
tw
> pw , R pc =
[ (
Mp
Mp
M yc M yc
1
pw
)(
rw pw
M
p
M yc )]
Where,
M p=Z x F y 1.6 S xc F y
Sxc, Sxt = elastic section modulus referred to tension and compression flanges, respectively,(mm3)
hc
= ,
tw
pw = p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange.
rw = r is the limiting slenderness for a noncompact flange.
The effective radius of gyration for lateral-torsional buckling, rt, is determined as follows:
b fc
rt =
where
12
( h0 aw h 2
+
d 6 h0 d )
hc t w
a w= ,
bfc t fc
bfc = compression flange width, in. (mm)
tfc = compression flange thickness, in. (mm)
3. Compression Flange Local Buckling
(a) For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of local buckling does not
apply.
(b) For sections with non-compact flanges
[
M n=C b R pc M yc (R pc M ycF L S xc )
[ pf
]]
rf pf
R pc M yc
h and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
tw
The web plastification factor, Rpc, is determined as follows:
hc Mp
(i) For pf , R pc=
tw M yc
(ii) For
hc
tw [ (
> pf , R pc =
Mp
Mp
M yc M yc
1
)( )]
pf
rf pf
M
p
M yc
4. Tension Flange Yielding
(a) When Sxt Sxc, the limit state of tension flange yielding does not apply.
(b) When Sxt < Sxc, M n=R pt M yt
where,
M yt =F y S xt
The web plastification factor, Rpt, is determined as follows:
hc M
(i) For pw , R pt = p
tw M yt
(ii) For
hc
tw [ ( )(
> pw , R pt =
Mp
M yt
Mp
M yt
1
pw
rw pw
M
p
M yt)]
Where,
hc
= ,
tw
pw = p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange.
rw = r is the limiting slenderness for a noncompact flange.
F5: Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about Their Major Axis:
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit
states of compression flange yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, compression flange local buckling
and tension flange yielding.
1. Compression Flange Yielding
M n=R pg F y S xc
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
M n=R pg F cr S xc
(a) When Lb L p, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(b) When L p < Lb Lr ,
[
Fcr =C b ( F y 0.3 F y )
[ LbL p
]]
Lr L p
Fy
C b 2 E
Fcr = Fy
Lb 2
( )
rt
Where,
L p=1.1 r t
E
Fy
Lr= r t
E
0.75 F y
aw hc
Rpg is the bending strength reduction factor:
where
R pg=1
1200+300 a w t w (
5.7
E
Fy
1.0
)
hc t w
a w= , but shall not exceed 10
bfc t fc
bfc = compression flange width, in. (mm)
tfc = compression flange thickness, in. (mm)
rt is radius of gyration of the flange components in flexural compression plus one-third of the web
area in compression due to application of major axis bending moment alone,(mm)
3. Compression Flange Local Buckling
M n=R pg F cr S xc
(a) For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of compression flange local
buckling does not apply.
h and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
tw
4. Tension Flange Yielding
(a) When Sxt Sxc, the limit state of tension flange yielding does not apply.
(b) When Sxt < Sxc, M n=F y S xt
F6: I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about Their Minor Axis:
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of
yielding ( plastic moment) and flange local buckling.
1. Yielding
M n=M P F y Z y 0.6 F y S y
2. Flange Local Buckling
(a) For sections with compact flanges the limit state of yielding shall apply.
(b) For sections with non-compact flanges
[
M n= M p( M p0.7 F y S y )
[ pf
rf pf ]]
(c) For sections with slender flanges
M n F cr S y
Where,
0.69 E
Fcr = 2
bf
( )
2tf
b
=
t
pf = p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange.
rf = r is the limiting slenderness for a non-compact flange.
In addition to the limit states specified in other sections of this Chapter, the nominal flexural
strength, Mn, shall be limited according to the limit state of tensile rupture of the tension flange.
(a) For Fu A f n Yt Fy Afg, the limit state of tensile rupture does not apply.
(b) For Fu Afn < Yt Fy Afg, the nominal flexural strength, Mn, at the location of the
F u A fn
holes in the tension flange shall not be taken greater than: M n= S
A fg x
where
Afg = gross tension flange area, calculated in accordance with the provisions of Section D3.1, (mm2)
Afn = net tension flange area, calculated in accordance with the provisions of Section D3.2,(mm2)
Yt = 1.0 for Fy/Fu 0.8 = 1.1 otherwise
(i) For
a
h
1.5,
h
( )
tw max
=11.7
E
Fy
a h 0.42 E
(i) For >1.5, ( ) =
h t
w max Fy
Where,
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, (mm)
In unstiffened girders h/tw shall not exceed 260.
2.3.3.4 Design for Shear
Two methods of calculating shear strength are presented below. The method presented in Section G2
does not utilize the post buckling strength of the member (tension field action). The method
presented in Section G3 utilizes tension field action. The Design Shear Strength (LRFD), vVn, and
the Allowable Shear Strength (ASD), Vn/v, are calculated by the program, as per section G2 of the
unified code specifications.
For all provisions in this chapter
v =0.90 ( LRFD ) v =1.67 ( ASD )
1. Nominal Shear Strength without tension field action
This section applies to webs of singly or doubly symmetric members and channels subject to shear in
the plane of the web. The nominal shear strength, Vn, of unstiffened or stiffened webs, according to
the limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling, is
V n 0.6 F y A w Cv
For webs of all doubly symmetric shapes and singly symmetric shapes
(i) For
h
tw
1.10
kv E
Fy
,C v =1
tw
h
(iii) For t w
> 1.37
kv E
Fy
,C v =
1.51 E k v
h 2
( )
tw
Fy
where
Aw = the overall depth times the web thickness, dtw , in.2 (mm2)
The web plate buckling coefficient, kv , is determined as follows:
(i) For unstiffened webs with h/tw < 260, kv = 5
(ii) For stiffened webs,
5
k v =5+ 2
a when a/h < 3.0
()
h
5 when a/h > 3.0
2. Nominal Shear Strength with Tension Field Action
When tension field action is permitted according to Section G3.1, the nominal shear strength, Vn,
with tension field action, according to the limit state of tension field yielding, shall be
(i) For
h
tw
1.10
kv E
Fy
,V n 0.6 F y A w
(ii) For
h
tw
> 1.10
kv E
Fy (
, V n 0.6 F y Aw C v +
1C v
1.15 1+(a h)2 )
Where, Kv and Cv are explained before.
WEAK AXIS SHEAR IN SINGLY AND DOUBLY SYMMETRIC SHAPES
For singly and doubly symmetric shapes loaded in the weak axis without torsion, the nominal shear
strength, Vn, for each shear resisting element shall be determined using above equations (Equation
G2-1 and Section G2.1(b)) with Aw = b f t f and kv = 1.2.
2.3.3.5 Design for Combined Forces
The interaction of flexure and axial forces in singly and doubly symmetric shapes is governed by
sections H1 and H3. These interaction formulas cover the general case of biaxial bending combined
with axial force and torsion. They are also valid for uniaxial bending and axial force. H1 deals Doubly
and Singly Symmetric Members Subject to Flexure and Axial Force. H3 deals Members under Torsion
and Combined Torsion, Flexure, Shear and/or Axial Force.
Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members in Flexure and Compression
The interaction of flexure and compression in doubly symmetric members and singly symmetric
members for which 0.1 (Iyc/Iy ) 0.9, that are constrained to bend about a geometric axis (x and/or
y) shall be limited by Equations H1-1a and H1-1b, where Iyc is the moment of inertia about the y-axis
referred to the compression flange, in.4 (mm4).
Pr P 8 M rx M ry
(i) For
Pc
0.2 , r + ( +
Pc 9 M cx M cy
1.0 )
Pr P M M
(ii) For
Pc (
<0.2 , r + rx + ry 1.0
2 P c M cx M cy )
where
Pr = required axial compressive strength, kips (N)
Pc = available axial compressive strength, kips (N)
Mr = required flexural strength, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mc = available flexural strength, kip-in. (N-mm)
x = subscript relating symbol to strong axis bending
y = subscript relating symbol to weak axis bending
Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members in Flexure and Tension
The interaction of flexure and tension in doubly symmetric members and singly symmetric members
constrained to bend about a geometric axis (x and/or y) shall be limited by Equations H1-1a and H1-
1b,
Pr P 8 M rx M ry
(i) For
Pc
0.2 , r + ( +
Pc 9 M cx M cy
1.0 )
Pr P M M
(ii) For
Pc (
<0.2 , r + rx + ry 1.0
2 P c M cx M cy )
In LRFD, for doubly symmetric members, Cb in Chapter F may be increased by
1+
tension that acts concurrently with flexure. In ASD, for doubly symmetric members, Cb in Chapter F
Pu
Pey
for axial
may be increased by
1+
1.5 Pa
Pey
for axial tension that acts concurrently with flexure. Where,
e EI y
Pey=
Lb 2
Strength of Non-HSS Members under Torsion and Combined Stress
The design torsional strength, fT Fn, and the allowable torsional strength,Fn/_T , for non-HSS
members shall be the lowest value obtained according to the limit states of yielding under normal
stress, shear yielding under shear stress, or buckling, determined as follows:
T =0.90 ( LRFD ) T =1.67 ( ASD )
(a) For the limit state of yielding under normal stress
Fn F y
(b) For the limit state of shear yielding under shear stress
Fn 0.6 F y
(c) For the limit state of buckling
Fn F cr
where
Fcr = buckling stress for the section as determined by analysis, ksi (MPa).
The calculation of Fv and Fn is based on AISC Design Guide 9 Torsional Analysis of Structural
Steel Members (DG-9). In general terms, in case of shear stress, Fv will comprise of components of
shear stress due to shear about both axes, warping shear stress and shear stress due to pure torsion.
In case of normal stress Fn, stress due to axial force and stress due to flexure about both axes is
considered. For some sections, like Single Angles and Tees, the component due to warping is
negligible with respect to stress for pure torsion (Ref. Section 4.2 and 4.3 of Design Guide 9).
STAAD.Pro will perform these torsion design checks when the TORSION parameter has been set to 1
(these are not checked by default). When torsion checks are performed, TRACK 3 output may be
used to provide detailed torsion design output for Design Guide 9 checks.
2.3.4 Design Parameters
Design per AISC 360-05 and 360-10 (Unified) specifications is requested by using the CODE
parameter. Other applicable parameters are summarized in the following Table. These parameters
communicate design decisions from the engineer to the program and thus allow the user to control
the design process to suit an application's specific needs. The default parameter values have been
selected such that they are frequently used numbers for conventional design. Depending on the
particular design requirements, some or all of these parameter values may be changed to exactly
model the physical structure.
2.2.12. Notes
Non-default values of CB must be re-entered before every subsequent CHECK CODE or SELECT
command.
Top and Bottom represent the positive and negative side of the local Y axis (local Z axis if SET Z
UP is used).
NSF is the Net Section Factor as used in most of the Steel Design Codes of STAAD. It is defined as
the Ratio of Net cross section area / Gross section area for tension member design. The
default value is 1.0. For the AISC 360 code, it is described in section D.3.2.
SLF is the Shear Lag Factor, as used in Section D.3.3 of the AISC 360-05 code. This factor is used
to determine the Effective Net Area by multiplying this factor with Net Area of the cross section.
Please refer to Table D3.1 of the 360 code for a list of acceptable SLF values. In STAAD, the
default value for SLF is 1.0. The Effective Net Area is used to determine the Tensile Strength for
Tensile rupture in the Net Section, as per equation D.2.2.
To summarize, the Gross Area (Ag) is multiplied by NSF to get the Net Area (An) of the
section. The Net Area (An) is again multiplied by SLF to get the Effective Net Area (Ae) of the
section.
2.3.6 Tabulated Results of Steel Design
All the Sections within a Member are checked segment by segment and the most critical
point within the section is reported for bending & axial stresses, shear stresses & deflections. Since
Members are non-prismatic elements the critical buckling Load is determined for the whole member
using numerical integration techniques. This will simulate the actual buckling behaviour of the non
prismatic member accurately rather than analyzing the Member at each segment individually that
does not take into effect the interaction of all segments when they behave as one member.
Auto design of built up Section dimensions (widths and thicknesses) are available for some
codes but in general user defined dimensions are checked for stresses according to specified code,
some limitations must be taken into consideration while choosing the dimensions of the built up
section to be checked as indicated below.
Following are the size limitations of built-up members welded by this machine.
Min Web thickness we can use as 4mm. and web depth as 250 mm.
Min flange thickness we can use as 5mm and flange width as 120mm.
Up to 12mm thick, we can cut by shear cutting and welding by machine. If the sizes are out of
the above 12mm, gas cutting and manual welding has to be undertaken.
Up to 32mm thickness, we can hole by punching. If it is above 32, we have to make hole by
drilling only.
Width of continuous Flange should be constant along the one welded piece. Also top and
bottom flange widths must be same.
Variation of thickness at any butt weld splice of continuous Flange / Web within the one welded
piece should be limited to maximum 4mm.
Butt web splices must be perpendicular to the straight flange.
Maximum bend angle for the flange is 28.44 o (normally top flange bends at peak while bottom
flange is straight in multi-span building frames)
In relation to the straight flange the maximum slope that welding head can follow at the other
flange is 15o.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Secondary structural members span the distance between the primary building frames of
metal building systems. They play a complex role that extends beyond supporting roof and wall
covering and carrying exterior loads to main frames. Secondary structurals, as these members are
sometimes called, may serve as flange bracing for primary framing and may function as a part of the
buildings lateral loadresisting system. Roof secondary members, known as purlins, often form an
essential part of horizontal roof diaphragms; wall secondary members, known as girts, are frequently
found in wall bracing assemblies.
A third type of secondary framing, known by the names of eave strut, eave purlin, or eave
girt, acts as part purlin and part girtits top flange supports roof panels, its web, wall siding. Girts,
purlins, and eave struts exhibit similar structural behaviour. Since most secondary members normally
encountered in metal building systems are made of cold-formed steel, our discussion starts with
some relevant issues in design of cold-formed steel structures.
The main design standard for cold-formed framing is Specification for the Design of Cold-
Formed Steel Structural Members by American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).1 The Specification,
Commentary, Design Examples, and other information constitute the AISI Manual materials suitable
for cold forming are usually quite thin and thus susceptible to local deformations under load. These
local deformations can take two forms: local and distortional buckling. In local buckling, some part of
the compression flange and the web buckles when the stresses reach a certain limit; that part then
ceases to carry its share of the load. In distortional buckling, the compression flange and the
adjacent stiffening lip move away from the original position as a unit, also weakening the section.
The flanges of light-gage sections cannot be assumed to be under a uniform stress
distribution, as the flanges of an I beam might be (the shear lag phenomenon). To account for both
the local buckling and the shear lag, the Specification utilizes a concept of effective design width, in
which only certain parts of the section are considered effective in resisting compressive stresses. This
concept is pivotal for stress analysis and deflection calculations performed for cold-formed members.
Another complication caused by a non-uniform stress distribution across thin, often non-
symmetrical, sections is their lack of torsional stability. Light-gage compression and flexural members
can fail in torsional-flexural buckling mode by simultaneous twisting and bending, a failure that can
occur at relatively low levels of stress. In plan, purlins that buckle laterally are displaced from their
original positions as shown in below Fig. The maximum lateral displacement typically occurs in the
middle of the span. Torsional-flexural buckling can be prevented by keeping the compressive stresses
very low or by plenty of bracing.
The complexities of light-gage member design do not stop at flexural and compression
calculations. Tedious shear calculations are often accompanied by even more cumbersome web
crippling checks. Web crippling failures most likely to occur at supports, where shear stresses are at
their maximum. Web crippling stresses are additive to bending stresses, and a combination of both
needs to be investigated.
Whenever web crippling stresses are excessive, bearing stiffeners are required at supports, in
which case it is common to assume that the total reaction force is transferred directly through the
stiffener into the primary framing, neglecting any structural contribution of the members web. A
small gap might even be left under the flange of a girt or purlin. The stiffeners are usually made of
clip angles, plates, or channel pieces. Some other clip designs, which not only help the purlin resist
web crippling stresses but also stabilize it laterally.
The point of inflection is where the moment diagram changes its sign, i.e., the moment is
zero. This is where the compression flange, which requires lateral bracing ceases to be in
compression. The adjoining part of the flange is loaded in tension and does not require lateral
bracing.
An argument has been made that the point of inflection functions as a virtual purlin brace, so
that the laterally unbraced purlin length could be measured from this point, rather than from the end
of the splice. Measuring the unbraced length from the point of inflection often reduces the laterally
unsupported purlin length and potentially yields a more economical design. However, the point of
inflection is imaginary, and it may shift with the change in loading.
As can be seen here, the point of inflection does not prevent the bottom flange of a purlin
with continuously laterally supported top flange from moving sideways under the failure mode of
lateral- torsional buckling. Yura13 concludes that not only it is incorrect to assume that an inflection
point is a brace point but also that bracing requirements for beams with inflection points are greater
than [for] cases of single curvature.
In addition to the main design assumptions discussed above, a few more should be mentioned. It is
possible to regard the end of the splice as the point where the bolts are located and the purlins are
physically joined together. A more typical approach is to place the end of the splice at the actual end
of the overlapping purlin, which adds an extra 1.5 in or so on each side to the splice length and
correspondingly decreases the unbraced purlin length.
Another common design assumption is to consider the splice region between the support
and the end of the lap as being fully laterally braced (as stated, among other sources, in the AISI
Manuals design example). Despite its wide use, this assumption seems to make sense only if both
flanges of the purlins in the lapped area are effectively restricted from rotation and translation under
load. Restraint of this type can be provided by sturdy antiroll clips. Alternatively, the top purlin
flanges must be laterally braced by the roofing or purlin bracing. The bottom flange can be
considered restrained if it is connected directly to the support.
In real life, however, the purlins supporting standing-seam roofing are not always so
restrained. All too often, Z purlins are simply through-bolted to the supports and forcing them into
the splice tends to cause their rotation and are not restrained at the top by anything more than
standing-seam roofing with sliding clips. In dissecting this issue, Epstein et al. conclude: The
presently accepted assumption that the lapped region is laterally braceddoes not appear to be
justified and may significantly overestimate the calculated strength.
4.5. Purlin bracing:
As structural engineers have long known, an unbraced compression flange of any single-web
flexural member, even of a perfectly symmetrical one loaded through its web, has a tendency to
buckle laterally under vertical loading. A singly symmetrical (C section) or a point-symmetrical (Z
section) cold-formed purlin is even more susceptible to buckling because it has its shear centre in a
location quite different from the point of loading application, which is typically the middle of the top
flange. Plus, the principal axes of a Z section are inclined to the web, and any downward load
produces a lateral component. Because of these factors, the unbraced C and Z sections tend to twist
and to become unstable even under gravity loading on a perfectly horizontal roof.
The effective purlin and girt bracing should accomplish the three main objectives listed
below. The origin of the first two criteria is Section D3 of the AISI Specification 1, 4 and of the third,
the Commentary to Section D3.2.1. The braces must be designed and spaced to avoid local crippling
at the points of attachment
1. To provide lateral flange bracing. Depending on the load direction, either interior or exterior
member flange can be in compression, and lateral bracing may be needed for both flanges. The
closer the spacing of the braces, the smaller the unbraced length of the section in the weak
direction.
2. To restrain the purlin or girt from rotation and to relieve torsion. Member rotation tends to occur
under essentially any type of loading: gravity, wind, truly vertical or inclined. Pipes, ducts, conduits,
and similar items are often suspended from roof purlins. Unfortunately, these are often attached to
the bottom flanges of purlins with C clamps or eye bolts, exerting additional torsional loading on the
purlins. Purlin bracing should help relieve this torsion. (Still, it is best to attach suspended items from
the purlin web, rather than from the flanges. Another possibility is suspending them from a light
gage steel channel placed between two adjacent purlins. The channel would not only allow some
flexibility of hanger location, but also provide some added bracing for both purlins.)
3. To restrain the whole assembly of purlins and roofing from lateral translation. Even if each
member is properly braced laterally and torsionally, the whole single-slope roof assembly with
purlins oriented in the same direction will tend to move upslope as a unit. The bracing system,
therefore, must be anchored at the endsand strong enough to extinguish the accumulated bracing
forces. In double-slope roofs, this is typically accomplished by sturdy ridge channels or angles.
Alternatively, an effective roof diaphragm may be provided to span between, and carry all the
bracing forces to, the properly designed primary frames capable of resisting those forces. Not every
purlin bracing system used today is effective in meeting these three objectives.
First, continuous lateral bracing may be provided by some types of metal roofing, mainly of
the through-fastened variety. Even through-fastened roofing can potentially meet only the first
objective of purlin bracing to provide lateral flange restraint. Roofing cannot provide torsional
stability for purlins, and its diaphragm strength and rigidity might be insufficient to prevent the
whole assembly of purlins and roofing from lateral movement. Therefore, metal roofing must be
supplemented by some other purlin bracing to ensure that the remaining two objectives are met.
The second type of purlin bracing is provided by discrete braces, whose spacing is
determined by analysis. An additional purlin brace is normally provided at each concentrated load.
Perhaps the most effective discrete purlin bracing system is provided by closely spaced parallel lines
of channel sections bolted between the purlins. They represent a superior method of stabilizing
purlins against rotation, although this type of bracing may be more labour-intensive than other
systems. Less effective, but also less expensive, discrete purlin bracing can be provided by steel
angles or strapping running from eave to eave perpendicular to the purlins. These braces are
attached to each purlin and at the ends to the eave struts. The braces can be located either parallel
to the roof or in a diagonal fashion, running from the top flange of one purlin to the bottom flange of
the next.
4.6. Assumptions
The point of inflection is where the moment diagram changes its sign, i.e., the moment is
zero. This is where the compression flange, which requires lateral bracing as discussed in Sec. 5.4,
ceases to be in compression. The adjoining part of the flange is loaded in tension and does not
require lateral bracing. An argument has been made that the point of inflection functions as a virtual
purlin brace, so that the laterally unbraced purlin length could be measured from this point, rather
than from the end of the splice. Measuring the unbraced length from the point of inflection often
reduces the laterally unsupported purlin length and potentially yields a more economical design.
However, the point of inflection is imaginary, and it may shift with the change in loading. Another
argument against using the point of inflection as a bracing point is illustrated that the point of
inflection does not prevent the bottom flange of a purlin with continuously laterally supported top
flange from moving sideways under the failure mode of lateral-torsional buckling. Yura concludes
that not only it is incorrect to assume that an inflection point is a brace point but also that bracing
requirements for beams with inflection points are greater than cases of single curvature.
In addition to the main design assumptions discussed above, a few more should be
mentioned. First, a relatively minor point: if the unbraced purlin length is measured from the end of
the splice, it is possible to regard the end of the splice as the point where the bolts are located and
the purlins are physically joined together. A more typical approach is to place the end of the splice at
the actual end of the overlapping purlin, which adds an extra 706mm or so on each side to the splice
length and correspondingly decreases the unbraced purlin length.
Another common design assumption is to consider the splice region between the support
and the end of the lap as being fully laterally braced (as stated, among other sources, in the AISI
Manuals design example). Despite its wide use, this assumption seems to make sense only if both
flanges of the purlins in the lapped area are effectively restricted from rotation and translation under
load. Restraint of this type can be provided by sturdy antiroll clips. Alternatively, the top purlin
flanges must be laterally braced by the roofing or purlin bracing. The bottom flange can be
considered restrained if it is connected directly to the support. In real life, however, the purlins
supporting standing-seam roofing are not always so restrained. All too often, Z purlins are simply
through-bolted to the supportsand forcing them into the splice tends to cause their rotation and
are not restrained at the top by anything more than standing-seam roofing with sliding clips.
Alternatively, the portal frame columns could stop short of the foundation. This requires
attachment to the primary frame columns at both top and bottom. A major advantage of not
extending the portal frame columns to the floor is that it avoids enlarging the foundation piers,
something that could be appreciated by the foundation designer who may not know the exact
locations of the portal frames in advance.
The disadvantage of not extending the portal frame column all the way down is that the
bottom part of the primary building column would now have to provide the level of strength and
stiffness comparable to that of the portal frame. This goal may be difficult to achieve, given that the
primary column is oriented in the weak direction relative to the portal frame. The manufacturers
tend to dislike this detail and prefer the first one. The easiest portal frame attachment to the primary
frame column can be made by a single angle bracket, as in fig.
Unfortunately, this detail suffers from two shortcomings. The first one: An angle piece
located eccentrically to the plane of the portal frame will likely introduce torsion into it. A better
detail is to align the bracket with the plane of the portal frame, or at least to use a stiffened angle
bracket, as in Fig. 3.31. The second problem is that the portal frame column is unrestrained against
rotation under load. The solution is again shown in fig: The interior flange of the portal frame can be
braced either by a pair of full-depth horizontal stiffeners or a flange brace.
Load Path
In a properly functioning building, structural loading is transferred between various building
elements, like a ball in a football game, until it is absorbed by the soil or otherwise extinguished. This
system of load transfer is known as the load path.
To illustrate its function, lets trace the path of a wind loading acting on a pre-engineered
buildings roof. wind acts normal to the roof, either toward the surface (pressure) or away from it
(uplift or suction). When wind pressure occurs, the roofing panels, the buildings first line of defence,
are pushed against the purlins and transfer the load by bearing. During wind uplift, the panels are
pulled away from the roof; the fasteners holding them in place, if improperly designed, may fail and
let the roofing fly. If the fasteners hold, the purlins get into flexural action, transferring the load into
the primary frames. Again, the connections must be adequate, or the whole assembly of the roofing
and purlins will be in the air.
The primary frames, in turn, resist the load by bending and might also fail if either their
strength or connections are deficient. If the frames hold, and the uplift force is not overcome by the
weight of the structure, the force travels to the anchor bolts attaching the frames to the foundations.
And finally, if the anchor bolts hold, the wind load is transferred to the foundation, which, hopefully,
has sufficient weight to counteract the wind uplift. Otherwise the whole building might be lifted up
like a giant tree with shallow roots.