Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chapter Two
Communication, Culture,
and Work
30
31
FIGURE 2.1
Population by 85% 1960 2005 2050
14%
11% 13% 13% 9%
3.5% 5%
0.6%
White Hispanic Black Asian
or with foreign nationals at home, or with native-born people from different backgrounds,
understanding cultural differences is an essential part of being an effective communicator.
CULTUREat work
Organizations Are Cultures Too James Heskett flatly claim that people who conform
to the norms of their organizations culture will be
Every organization has its own way of doing business.
rewarded, while those who do not will be penalized.18
Anyone who has worked for more than one restaurant
You can get a sense of a companys culture by
or retail store, attended more than one college or
talking with people who work there. Besides asking
university, belonged to more than one team, or vol-
about culture in a formal job interview, off-the-record
unteered for more than one worthy cause knows that
conversations with potential colleagues can provide
even when the same job is being performed, the way
valuable insights about the way the company oper-
its done can be radically different. Theorists use the
ates. For example, ask how employees spend their
term organizational culture to describe these unique
time. A surprising amount of effort might go into
traits. An organizations culture is a relatively stable,
activities only remotely related to getting the job
shared set of rules about how to behave and set of
done: dealing with paperwork, playing office politics,
values about what is important. In everyday language,
struggling with balky equipment, or attending one
culture is the insiders view of the way things are
unproductive meeting after another. Even if you dont
around here.
learn much about the organization as a whole, youll
Organizational culture can affect you in many
get a good picture of the kind of people you will be
ways, large and small. Among other things, your
working with.
organizations culture can determine where and how
You can also get clues about an organiza-
long you will work. It can shape the emotional envi-
tions culture from observing how it operates.
ronment, including the degree of cooperation or com-
Communication practices are a good place to begin.
petition, and notions of how much and what kinds of
How are you treated when you visit a company or
fun are appropriate. Culture will surely influence the
deal with its employees? Do e-mails and other writ-
way you and others dress and the physical environ-
ten correspondence suggest a welcoming culture?19
ment in which youll spend your time. Organizational
An organizations physical presence also says some-
culture will govern the amount and type of inter-
thing about its culture. Are workers areas personal-
action you have (both on and off the job) with other
ized or standardized? Is the workplace clean or dirty?
employees, both coworkers and management.16
Does the organization seem prosperous, or is it oper-
Your fit with an organizations culture can make
ating on a shoestring?
all the difference between a satisfying and a disap-
Youre likely to spend more waking hours on the
pointing job. Research shows that employees are
job than anywhere else, so thinking about the per-
more satisfied and committed to their jobs when
sonality of an organization where you work can be
their values match those of their supervisors and
just as important as choosing the culture where you
the organization.17 They are also more successful.
live or the kind of person you choose as a mate.
Harvard Business School professors John Kotter and
33
Understanding how culture shapes communication can help you avoid mistaken
conclusions about what a certain message means. It also might help you understand more
about how you communicate.
Social Class
Even in egalitarian societies like the United States and Canada, social class can have a
major impact on how people communicate on the job. Research demonstrates that par-
ents tend to raise their children with the social class values of their own workplaces.25 For
example, children raised in working-class families typically learn to be obedient, follow
TECHNOLOGY tip
Generational Preferences in Beyond technology, generational differences also
Communication Technology arise in communication style. Millennial workers are
used to the speed and brevity of texting and instant
Age often matters when choosing the best technology messaging. As a consequence, they often arent
for exchanging messages on the job. The channels sticklers for correct spelling and syntax. By contrast,
that communicators prefer are often a function of the Baby Boomers and Gen Xers grew up learning that
era in which they came of age. accuracy is essential. They are likely to regard careless
When Baby Boomers entered the workforce, writing as a sign of incompetence.
typewriters and telephones were the principal com- Keeping differences like these in mind can help
munication technologies. About three-quarters you choose the communication channel and style that
of them now use the Internet in one way or best suit the people you are trying to reach. As always,
another, and most have embraced e-mail. But Baby generalizations dont apply to every person: Some
Boomers are less likely than younger communica- Baby Boomers are avid users of all technologies, and
tors to use or appreciate the value of e-commerce some Millennials resemble their grandparents when
and social networking. Differences even exist it comes to using digital media. Despite exceptions to
between Gen Xers and their Millennial counter- the rule, it often pays to be mindful of generational
parts. For example, Millennials are much more differences when communicating strategically.
preoccupied with their gadgets. Rather than simply
making phone calls, they use phones for sending Source: Zickuhr, K. (2011, February 3). Generations and their gadgets.
e-mail and text messages, playing games and music, Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from http://pewinter-
and recording videos. net.org/Reports/2011/Generations-and-gadgets/Report.aspx?view5all
rules, and defer to authority. By contrast, those raised in middle- and upper-class house-
holds are taught how to make convincing arguments, think critically, and solve problems
creatively.
These lessons have consequences later in life. College professors often find that
working-class and first-generation college students who are raised not to challenge author-
ity can have a difficult time speaking up, thinking critically, and arguing persuasively.26
The effects of social class continue into business and professional life, where skills like
assertiveness and persuasiveness are career-enhancers. People who come from working-
class families and attain middle- or upper-class careers face special challenges. New speech
and language, clothing, and nonverbal patterns are often necessary to gain acceptance.27
Many of these individuals must also cope with emotional ambivalence related to their
career success.28
Generational Differences
The era in which people have been raised can shape the way they communicate.
More than just a function of getting older over time, the historical period in which
people live can affect their values, expectations, and as a result, their communication.
Three generations compose most of todays workforce: Baby Boomers, Gen Xers, and
Millennials.29
Baby Boomers (born 19451964) are the generation that typically has the most sen-
iority in organizations today. Born following World War II, this generation was brought
up to be independent and to believe they have the power to effect meaningful changes.
They witnessed and participated in an era of social reform and upheaval that included
35
Regional Differences
Even in an age of great mobility, regional differences in communication styles per-
sist. For example, your manner of speaking can have a strong effect on how you are
perceived. Speakers of standard dialect are rated higher than nonstandard speakers in
a variety of ways: They are perceived as more competent and more self-confident, and
the content of their messages is rated more favorably.34 In one experiment, researchers
asked human resource professionals to rate job applicants intelligence, initiative, and
personality after hearing a 45-second recording of their voices. The speakers with iden-
tifiable regional accentsa Southern or New Jersey accent, for examplewere recom-
mended for lower-level jobs, while those with less pronounced speech styles were tagged
for higher-level jobs that involved more public contact.35 The judgments attached to
identifiable accents is a key reason why many call centers for U.S. companies are located
in Midwestern states. Gallup, the national telephone research agency, uses call centers
in Nebraska because of the neutral accents of many of the people who live there.
case STUDY
A $48 Million Misunderstanding? lawsuit, claiming the articles allegation of under-
handed racing tactics cost them potential business.
Jockey Jose Santos filed a libel claim against the
Santoss attorney said that the misunderstand-
Miami Herald, seeking $48 million in damages
ing would never have happened if the Herald had
over a reporters misunderstanding of his accented
chosen a Spanish-speaking reporter. In the same vein,
English. The Herald published a photograph
the editor of Miamis alternative paper, New Times,
showing Santos apparently holding an object in his
commented: Let me get this straight: In Miami, the
hand as he rode thoroughbred Funny Cide across
most Hispanic city in the country, the newspaper of
the finish line in the 2003 Kentucky Derby. In
record screwed up because someone misunderstood a
the accompanying story, reporter Frank Carlson
Spanish speaker?
misquoted the jockey as stating the object was
an illegal cue ring. The item turned out to be Source: Photo of Kentucky Derby winner leads to investigation.
a Q-Ray, an ionized bracelet the jockey wore to (2003, May 10). Sports Illustrated.com. Retrieved from http://
help with his arthritis. As a result of the story, the sportsillustrated.cnn.com/horse_racing/news/2003/05/10/derby_
Kentucky Racing Commission launched an inves- photo_ap/; Prince, R. (2005, February 11). $48 million misunder-
tigation into what one official called very suspi- standing: Latino jockeys case against Herald to proceed. Maynard
Institute. Retrieved from http://www.maynardije.org/richardprince/
cious behavior. 48-million-misunderstanding; Sa ntos, Sackatoga sue Miami Herald
The newspaper later printed a correction, but for libel. (2004, May 9). Thoroughbred Times. Retrieved from http://
Santos maintained the story caused him emotional www.thoroughbredtimes.com/national-news/2004/may/09/santos-
distress. The horses owners were co-parties in the sackatoga-sue-miami-herald-for-libel.aspx
The effect of non-native accents is even more powerful. In one study, jurors in the
United States found testimony less believable when delivered by witnesses speaking with
German, Mexican, or Middle Eastern accents.36 Not surprisingly, other research shows
speakers with non-native accents feel stigmatized by the bias against them, often leading
to a lower sense of belonging and more communication problems.37
Beyond accent, regional differences in communication can be significant. In the
United States, for example, the unwritten rules about smiling differ from one part of
the country to another. One communication researcher found Midwesterners from
Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois smiled more than New Englanders from Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, and Maine. None of those people smiled as much as people from southern
and border states like Georgia, Kentucky, and Tennessee.38 Given these differences,
it is easy to imagine how a manufacturer from Memphis might regard a banker from
Boston as unfriendly, and how the New Englander might view the southerner as overly
demonstrative.
Disabilities
Belonging to a co-culture based on ethnicity or nationality requires years of immersion.
By contrast, Disability is a club anyone can join, anytime. Its very easy. Have a stroke
and be paralyzed. . . . Be in a car wreck and never walk again.39
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) guarantees that people with dis-
abilities receive reasonable accommodations and equal access to employment, buildings,
transportation, and services. These legal guarantees are important, but they dont change
the fact that, in many ways, having a disability may change how one is regarded. While
37
there are no hard-and-fast rules about communicating with people who have disabilities,
these guidelines apply to virtually all encounters:40
1. Be naturally cordial. When introduced to a person with a disability, offer to shake
hands. People with limited hand use or who wear an artificial limb can usually
shake hands. (Shaking hands with the left hand is an acceptable greeting.)
2. Offer the same level of respect that you would to any other person. For example, speak
directly to people with disabilities rather than looking at and talking to their com-
panion. Address people who have disabilities by their first names only when extend-
ing the same familiarity to all others. Realize that leaning on or hanging on to a
persons wheelchair is similar to leaning or hanging on to the person using it.
3. Dont be pushy. If you offer assistance, wait until your offer is accepted. Then listen
to the answers or ask, How can I help?
4. Accommodate to the disability. For example, when meeting a person who is visually
impaired, identify yourself and others who may be with you. When speaking with a
person who uses a wheelchair or a person who uses crutches, place yourself at eye level.
5. Be patient. When youre talking with someone who has difficulty speaking, wait
for him or her to finish rather than correcting. If necessary, ask short questions that
require short answers, a nod, or shake of the head. Never pretend to understand
if you are having difficulty doing so. Instead, repeat what you have understood
and allow the person to respond. The response will clue you in and guide your
understanding.
6. Relax. Dont be embarrassed if you happen to use accepted, common expressions
such as See you later or Did you hear about that? that seem to relate to a
persons disability. Dont be afraid to ask questions when youre unsure of what
to do.41
FIGURE 2.2
Differences and
U.S.A. More formal Similarities within
cultures and between
Cultures
Source: Adapted from Bond,
M. H. (1991). Beyond the
Similarities Chinese face. New York,
NY: Oxford University
Press; Trompenaars, F.
(1994). Riding the waves
of culture. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Formality Americans take pleasure in their informality and their quickness in get-
ting on a first-name basis with others. With the exception of a few countries, including
Thailand and Australia, business exchanges with persons from other countries tend to be
much more formal, especially at the beginning of a relationship.42 In the United States
and Canada, first names are seen as friendly and indicative of fondness and attachment.
In many other countriesMexico, Germany, and Egypt, for exampletitles are an
important way of showing respect, and its best to use them until you are invited to move
to a first-name basis.43
Names and titles arent the only way to express degrees of formality. The way peo-
ple door dontconverse with strangers varies from one culture to another. In North
America, its not uncommon to strike up a conversation with a stranger. But this custom
isnt universal. The U.S. retail giant Wal-Mart made the strategic decision not to hire
greeters at its German stores for reasons expressed by a public relations expert from that
country: As a German, I find the idea of being greeted at the door uncomfortable. I
would feel astonished if someone I didnt know started talking to me.44
Time In international business, the first shock for travelers from the United States
may be the way members of other cultures understand and use time. North Americans,
like most northern Europeans, have what anthropologists term a monochronic view of
time, seeing it as an almost tangible substance. American speech reflects this attitude
when people talk about saving time, making time, having time, wasting time, using
time, and taking time. In U.S. culture, time is money, so it is rationed carefully. People
schedule appointments and rigidly adhere to them. Tasks are performed in a scheduled
order, one at a time.
This monochronic orientation is not universal. Cultures with a polychronic orienta-
tion see time as more fluid. Meetings go on for as long as they take; they dont abruptly
end because its time. Most Latin American cultures, as well as southern European
and Middle Eastern cultures, have a polychronic orientation. In Mexico, for example,
you make friends first and do business later, according to R. C. Schrader, who heads
Californias trade office in Mexico City.49
Members of polychronic cultures are less concerned with punctuality than those
raised with monochronic standards. It is not that being punctual is unimportant; it is
just that other relational factors may take priority. This fact helps explain why the notion
of being on time varies. Extremely monochronic cultures view even small delays as an
offense. In polychronic cultures, varying degrees of lateness are acceptablefrom roughly
15 minutes in southern Europe to part, or sometimes even all, of the day in the Middle
East and Africa.50
Tolerance for Conflict In some cultures, each person is responsible for helping to
maintain harmony of a group and of society. The maintenance and pursuit of harmony
is expressed in the Japanese term wa. In Chinese, a similar term is zhong he.51 In other
placesthe Middle East and southern Europe, for exampleharmony takes a backseat
to emotional expression. Figure 2.3 illustrates how the rules for expressing emotions vary
around the world.
A.
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sia
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s
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.
ay
ly
K
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or
pa
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I ta
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an
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The cultural avoidance of conflict means most Asian businesspeople will probably
not say no directly to you, fearing you will lose face and suffer embarrassment. To help
you maintain harmony and save face, they might spare you unpleasant news or informa-
tion; it will be softened so you dont suffer disgrace or shame, especially in front of others.
You may be told they will consider the matter or that it would be very difficult. Mexican
business culture also values harmony and discourages confrontation. This attitude creates
problems when it clashes with more aggressive standards that U.S. businesspeople usually
bring to transactions. As president of Black & Decker Latin America, Jos Maria Gonzales
is used to working with colleagues and suppliers from north of the border. Despite that
fact, he says coping with the difference between U.S. and Mexican approaches to conflict
doesnt come easily:
In a meeting Americans can argue, hit the table and leave as if nothing happened, while
a Mexican might not forgive you for three months. I have to make sure not to person-
alize things sometimes.52
This sort of accommodation works both ways. People from cultures that seek har-
mony can learn to adapt to and accept conflict; communicators from more aggressive
societies like the United States can learn to appreciate the importance of harmony when
communicating cross culturally. Once communicators learn to appreciate different sets
of rules about how to express and handle disagreements, conducting business becomes
much easier.
Gender Roles Women from North America, Western Europe, and Australia/New
Zealand who travel internationally are likely to be astonished and chagrined by the way
they are regarded in some overseas cultures, where ideas of appropriate feminine behavior
can be quite different. In some countries, a woman who outranks a man may not be
treated that way by hosts; the hosts may still speak to and prefer to negotiate with the
male, assuming he is the womans superior. In Asian countries and Muslim countries,
women may find they are excluded from substantive conversation or overlooked in nego-
tiations because of designated gender roles. Sometimes, a woman can establish greater
credibility by clarifying her title, role, and responsibilities in writing before a personal
visit, but even this step wont guarantee the desired effect.
The differences described here can present challenges when workers from different
cultures work together. Table 2-1 illustrates some of these challenges by listing differ-
ences between Chinese and Western businesspeople in both concerns and communica-
tion styles.
These statements reflect different facets of cultural intelligence, or CQ for short. For
each set, add up your scores and divide by four to produce an average. Our work with
large groups of managers shows that for purposes of your own development, it is most
useful to think about your three scores in comparison to one another. Generally, an
average of less than 3 would indicate an area calling for improvement, while an average
of greater than 45 reflects a true CQ strength.
Rate the extent to which you agree with each statement, using the scale:
1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.
Before I interact with people from a new culture, I ask myself what I hope to achieve.
If I encounter something unexpected while working in a new culture, I use this experience to fig-
ure out new ways to approach other cultures in the future.
I plan how Im going to relate to people from a different culture before I meet them.
1 When I come into a new cultural situation, I can immediately sense whether something is going
well or something is wrong.
Total 4 4 5 Cognitive CQ
Its easy for me to change my body language (for example, eye contact or posture) to suit people
from a different culture.
I can alter my expression when a cultural encounter requires it.
I modify my speech style (for example, accent or tone) to suit people from a different culture.
+ I easily change the way I act when a cross-cultural encounter seems to require it.
Total 4 4 5 Physical CQ
I have confidence I can deal well with people from a different culture.
I am certain I can befriend people whose cultural backgrounds are different from mine.
I can adapt to the lifestyle of a different culture with relative ease.
1 I am confident I can deal with a cultural situation thats unfamiliar.
Total 4 4 5 Emotional/
motivational CQ
Source: Earley, P. C., & Mosakowski, E. (2004, October). Cultural intelligence. Harvard Business Review, 82(10), 139146.
Source: Chen, M. (2001). Inside Chinese business: A guide for managers worldwide. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
people from different backgrounds behave as they do, and you will have ideas of how you
can adapt to improve the quality of your communication with others.
Western Chinese
Mainstream culture in the United States and Canada falls toward the low-context
end of the scale. Long-time residents generally value straight talk and grow impatient
with beating around the bush. By contrast, most Middle Eastern and Asian cultures fit
the high-context pattern. In many Asian societies, for example, maintaining harmony
is important, so communicators avoid speaking directly if that would threaten another
persons dignity. One U.S. project manager describes how her insensitivity to high-context
communication almost derailed an international team in developing a Japanese-language
version of an Internet search service:
As an American project manager, I was expecting that if I was proposing something
stupid, I would hear it from the people on the team. In reality, I had a plan with a fatal
flaw, and the Japanese team members knew it, but it was not their style of communica-
tion to embarrass me by telling me.55
Even within a single country, co-cultures can have different notions about the
value of direct speech. For example, Puerto Rican language style resembles high-context
Japanese or Korean more than low-context English. As a group, Puerto Ricans value social
harmony and avoid confrontation, which leads them to speak in indirect ways to avoid
offending.56 The same holds true for Mexican Americans, as communication researcher
Don Locke explains:
Whereas members of the dominant culture of the United States are taught to value
openness, frankness, and directness, the traditional Mexican-American approach
requires the use of much diplomacy and tact when communicating with another indi-
vidual. Concern and respect for the feelings of others dictate that a screen be provided
behind which an individual may preserve dignity. . . . The manner of expression is
likely to be elaborate and indirect, since the aim is to make the personal relationship at
least appear harmonious, to show respect for the others individuality. To the Mexican-
American, direct argument or contradiction appears rude and disrespectful.57
A preference for high- or low-context communication isnt the only factor that dis-
tinguishes one culture from another. One survey of 160,000 employees in 60 countries
revealed several other ways in which the worldviews of one national culture can differ
from those of another.58 Table 2-2 lists those dimensions and the styles that are most
common in some countries. We will look at those differences now.
Power Distance The term power distance refers to attitudes toward differences in
authority. Cultures with high power distance, such as Mexico and the Philippines, accept
the fact that power is distributed unequallythat some members have greater resources
and influence than others. In these cultures, differences in organizational status and rank
are expected, routine, and clear-cut. Employees respect those in high positions. Other
cultures, such as the United States, downplay differences in power. Employees are more
comfortable approachingand even challengingtheir superiors and may expect to gain
greater power.
Colleagues with different notions of power distance might find it difficult to work
together. Imagine, for example, how a young business school graduate from a U.S. firm
might grow frustrated after being transferred to the Guadalajara branch office, where
the same relentless questioning that marked her as a free thinker in school is regarded as
overly aggressive troublemaking.
ETHICAL challenge
Asking Hard Questions about Ethical guidelines when faced with ethical challenges of
Behavior your own.
Among its core values, electronics manufacturer Is the action legal?
Texas Instruments (TI) includes a respect for indi- Does it comply with our values?
viduals, a commitment to long-term relationships, a If you do it, will you feel bad?
concern for the environment, and a sense of duty to How will it look in the newspaper?
the communities where it does business.
TI encourages employees to use the following If you know its wrong, dont do it!
guidelines whenever they have a concern about If youre not sure, ask.
whether a business action is consistent with the Keep asking until you get an answer.
companys values. This information is provided Source: Texas Instruments, Inc. (2011). Corporate social responsibility:
to TI employees on a business-card-size mini- The TI ethics quick test. Retrieved from http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/
pamphlet to carry with them. You can use the same company/citizen/ethics/quicktest.shtml
47
NegotiatingCompromising: You and the other party could each give up something
to negotiate a settlement.
CollaborationProblem Solving: You could work with the other party to confront
the conflict directly and develop a mutually satisfying solution.64
All of these approaches have obvious drawbacks. Its easy to imagine a situation in
which you may have to choose between compromising your principles to please your
bosses and customers or being true to yourself and risking your career.
Facing ethical dilemmas you never anticipated can be especially hard. You can begin
to prepare by grounding yourself in ethical principles and learning about a new cultures
ethical practices. When you do encounter new situations, ask yourself the following ques-
tions to help you make the best possible decision:
How morally significant is this situation? Not all ethical conflicts have the same
moral significance. For example, while giving contracts to friends or family mem-
bers may offend the sensibilities of a businessperson used to awarding jobs on the
basis of merit, the practice may not be as morally offensive as one exploiting child
labor or damaging the environment.65
Is there home culture consensus regarding the issue? If there is not widespread agree-
ment in your home culture about the ethical principle, you justifiably may have
more latitude about how to act. For example, corporations in the United States have
a wide range of policies about supporting employees families, so there might be less
obligation for a company to provide family benefits in a host country.66
CAREER tip
Difference as Advantage Most communities offer classes in English, pub-
lic speaking, and writing where you can sharpen
Historically, being different from the norm was a dis-
these skills.
advantage for many career-minded people. For that
reason, job-seekers often tried to downplay differ- 3. Identify ways your cultural background will help
ences such as being born abroad, speaking differently, you be an asset in marketing, sales, client sup-
or appearing visibly different from the mainstream. port, management, and other areas. Make sure
But as society becomes more diverse, tolerance your bosses understand these advantages.
grows, and world trade expands, diversity can be a 4. Dont overplay your unique identity and
career-enhancer. risk being pigeonholed as a token minority
Here are some tips that can help you use your employee. Career success depends on a var-
unique background in your career. iety of factors, including your personal back-
ground, but performance is the best measure of
1. If you are skilled at speaking other languages, fea-
your value.
ture that information in your rsum. Being bilin-
gual or multilingual can make you a very attractive
candidate. If you are already employed, show your
bosses how fluency can help the organization. Source: Prasad, C. (2009). Difference as advantage: Maximize the benefits
of your cultural identity on the job. Retrieved from http://www.imdiversity
2. If English isnt your first language, make sure your .com/villages/asian/careers_workplace_employment/prasad_
literacy skills and accent reduction are up to par. difference_in_workplace.asp
with the new friendly teller program. Management failed to realize that, in Filipino
culture, overtly friendly women can be taken for prostitutes. A Taiwanese executive who
was transferred to the Midwestern U.S. offices of a large company was viewed as aloof
and autocratic by his peers, who did not understand that Asian culture encourages a more
distant managerial style.
Misunderstandings like these are less likely to cause problems when workers under-
stand each others cultural backgrounds. As Paulette Williams, former senior manager
at Weyerhausers nurseries in Southern California, put it, If you dont learn how other
people feel, you can hurt them unintentionally.70
Timothy Weiss, a U.S. professor who spent a year teaching at the Chinese University
of Hong Kong, illustrates the kind of open-minded, inquiring attitude that can make
communicators more effective when they encounter different cultural practices.
Why, in a culture that so dearly values every second and minute saved, will meetings
and conversations last for what Americans would consider such inordinately long peri-
ods? . . . In these departmental meetingswhich I find excruciatingI suspect that
something else is going on that a Westerner such as myself will understand sooner or
later. Although I certainly am not ready to abandon my American sense of how depart-
mental meetings should be conducted, in allowing myself to remain open-minded about
other ways of conducting these meetings, I begin to learn something about other ways
of approaching departmental issues and of communicating messages within a group.71
CULTUREat work
Gender as a Co-Culture different worlds, and being tuned to different
frequencies.74
As you will read in Chapter 4, characteristically male
If you accept the different cultures argument,
and female communication styles differ in some signifi-
then the guidelines for intercultural communication
cant ways. These differences have led some observers
in these pages offer useful tips for dealing with mem-
to suggest that the two sexes belong to two distinct
bers of the opposite sex. Rather than ethnocentri-
co-cultures. This position was most memorably
cally finding fault with the way they communicate,
captured in John Grays best-selling book Men Are
a more productive approach might be to think that
from Mars, Women Are from Venus.72 Research has
members of the opposite sex are speaking a differ-
confirmed there are some differences between the
ent language to some degree. As Tannen puts it,
way men and women communicate.73 For example,
Understanding style differences for what they are
sociolinguist Deborah Tannen has described men
takes the sting out of them.75
and women as expressing different words from
cultural diversity can stop being just a necessary cost of doing business and can become
an opportunity.76 Figure 2.4 shows the range of attitudes about cultural differences. Its
easy to see which mindsets do and do not lead to productive relationships.
Self-centered Other-centered
Table 2-3 Attitudes and Behaviors That Block or Promote Intercultural Relations
Source: From Harris, P. R., & Moran, R. T. (2004). Managing cultural differences: Global leadership strategies for the 21st century. Boston,
MA: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann.
Dont Condescend Its easy to view people who are different as unequal. Your first
reaction to a colleague with a physical disability might be sympathy or pity. Immigrants
learning English as a second language might sound less intelligent than native speakers.
Even white males, members of the traditional majority, might seem like members of the
good old boy club, undeserving of respect since their success seemingly owes more to
personal connections than to merit.
Even excessive efforts to demonstrate an attitude of equality can come across as con-
descending. One African American woman listed three statements that white women who
want to treat black women with respect and friendship should never utter: (1) I never
even notice that youre black; (2) Youre different from most black people; (3) I under-
stand what youre going through as a black woman, because Im (Jewish, Italian, etc.).79
key terms
Baby Boomers 35 low-context culture 43
co-culture 33 masculine culture 46
collectivist cultures 44 Millennials 36
culture 32 monochronic time orientation 40
ethnocentrism 50 organizational culture 33
feminine culture 46 polychronic time orientation 40
Generation Xers 36 power distance 45
high-context culture 43 short-term orientation 46
individualistic culture 44 uncertainty avoidance 46
long-term orientation 46
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activities
1. Invitation to Insight an organization in a field that interests you, or focus
a. Either through personal interviews or research, on an organization to which you already belong.
identify several differences in communication By analyzing the organizations physical setting and
practices between your own culture and another literature, interviewing others, and making your own
culture that interests you. observations, construct a description of the organiza-
b. If you were interacting with a person from that tional culture that addresses the dimensions listed on
culture, how would you bridge the differences? pp. 4852. On the basis of your findings, describe
an optimal way to communicate in the following
2. Invitation to Insight areas:
Choose one set of cultural values summarized on a. Introducing new ideas.
pp. 4246 and identify the characteristic that is not b. Interacting with superiors.
representative of your own culture. For example, if c. Dealing with conflict.
you are used to a low-context culture, you might d. Managing time.
focus on high-context communication. Now consider e. Socializing with fellow workers.
both the advantages and the disadvantages of working f. Using preferred methods of exchanging infor-
in an environment in which this unfamiliar norm is mation (e.g., telephone, e-mail, face-to-face
the dominant one. For instance, how might interac- interaction).
tion be more effective or otherwise desirable if most
people communicated in a high-context manner? 5. Skill Builder
Choose three cultures around the world with which
3. Skill Builder you might interact in the course of your career.
Select one form of disability. Collaborate with sev- To discover the keys to effective intercultural com-
eral of your classmates to create two role plays, illus- munication in your three chosen cultures, find some
trating effective and ineffective communication with reputable sources on the Internet. For each of the
a person who is challenged by the disability. Act out three cultures describe:
your role plays in front of the class. a. The culture in general.
b. Business protocol for that culture.
4. Skill Builder c. The language(s).
d. Sources you could go to for additional training
Develop your ability to identify and communicate
and/or e-mail contacts.
effectively within an organizations culture. Choose
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For further review, go to the LearnSmart study module for this chapter.
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