Acoustic Logging Based on
Wellbore Resonance
W.L. Medlin, SPE, and D.P. Schmitt, Mobil R&D Corp.
Summary
Wellbore resonance phenomena are the basis for a new acoustic log-
ging method, the Stimulated Mode Acoustic Log (SMAL). The
SMAL method stimulates a particular mode of wellbore vibration
by exciting a resonance for that mode. Specific resonances are ex-
cited by driving an acoustic transmitter with a short tone burst of ap-
propriate frequency. SMAL benefits include signal enhancement
under adverse conditions, avoiding dispersion effects, propagating
formation waves through cased and slotted liner completions, gen-
erating steady-state phase and amplitude data, and providing forma-
tion Q logs. All of these applications have arisen from studies of
wellbore resonance phenomena through well logging and laborato-
ry experiments. One means of study has been the wellbore excita-
tion log, which shows the foot-by foot response of the wellbore to
swept-frequency excitation across the acoustic band. Excitation
logs show that resonances are sensitive to lithology and formation
saturation conditions. Additional insight has been provided by gen-
erating standing waves under resonance conditions. This approach
has led to a means of estimating a formation Q from the decay of
standing tube waves. Q data, generated in this way, are consistent
with laboratory data for core and quarry samples. A Q log, run
through the gas, oil, and water legs of a thick Gulf Coast sand, is con-
sistent with lab data for cores. Laboratory experiments in thick-wall
pipe models have been another means of study. These field and labo-
ratory investigations indicate that the combination of wellbore and
logging tool behave somewhat like a resonance cavity for pressure
waves in the wellbore fluid. Tool elements, especially the two ends,
act as reflectors of fluid wave energy, giving rise to resonances and
standing wave phenomena. The resonance characteristics of this
cavity are dominated by the properties of the formation wall materi-
al and the coupling between the fluid and borehole wall. Other fac-
tors, such as fluid column and source resonances, play secondary
roles. It is the strong dependence of resonances on formation prop-
erties that makes SMAL a valuable logging concept.
Introduction
In an earlier paper we described various frequency effects in acous-
tic logging that are characteristic of resonance phenomena.1 The
traditional view of resonances in acoustic logging is to avoid them
insofar as possible. In this paper, we consider ways to take advan-
tage of resonance phenomena. We describe practical applications
that have been thoroughly tested in field logging operations. The un-
derlying principle in all of these applications is the use of resonances
to stimulate particular modes of wellbore vibration. This technique
relies on exciting a resonance that is associated predominantly with
a specific mode. We refer to this general technology as SMAL.
SMAL technology has its origins in the results of many field and
laboratory experiments. We have conducted a variety of field ex-
periments to understand better the characteristics of wellbore reso-
nances. In addition, we have conducted laboratory experiments in
thick wall pipe models to develop additional insights.
The SMAL method relies on driving an acoustic transmitter at a
selected frequency that corresponds to a wellbore resonance. The
use of a fixed, narrow-band frequency drive is a significant depar-
ture from the conventional method of broad band excitation.2 We
will show how the SMAL method provides important advantages
for certain applications. Weak signals can be enhanced by orders of
Copyright 1996 Society of Petroleum Engineers
Original SPE manuscript received for review Nov. 23, 1992. Revised manuscript received
Aug. 22, 1994. Paper peer approved Jan. 10, 1996. Paper (SPE 24686) first presented at the
1992 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Washington, DC, Oct. 47.
80
magnitude by taking advantage of resonance effects. Frequency
control offers ways to obtain compressional and tube wave logs
through densely perforated casing, slotted liners, and gravel packs.
In dipole logging, the SMAL method produces flexural waves at fre-
quencies low enough to eliminate errors in shear wave velocity esti-
mates.3 SMAL also affords a way to measure formation Q with a
conventional logging tool. Q logs obtained in this way in a variety
of formations are presented and discussed.
Wellbore Resonance Phenomena
It is not difficult to find evidence of wellbore resonances in acoustic
logging experience. Ref. 1 gives a number of examples. One of the
most convincing demonstrations is provided by what we call a well-
bore excitation log. This is a swept frequency acoustic method that
generates excitation spectra of the wellbore. It shows the foot-by-foot
response of the wellbore to excitation by an acoustic source that is
driven through a frequency sweep of the acoustic band.
We have developed an acoustic tool for generating such logs. As
illustrated in Fig. 1, it consists of a broadband transmitter and a
single, close-spaced (2 to 3 ft) receiver with a response that is flat
over the acoustic band. The transmitter is driven by a sine-wave tone
burst of swept frequency as illustrated. The linear sweep drive,
which is generated downhole, goes from 0 to 20 kHz in 0.8 seconds.
It is triggered at each foot marker as the tool is moved uphole at a
logging speed of 20 ft/min. The receiver produces a signal which va-
ries in amplitude in accordance with the frequency response of the
wellbore. The receiver response is displayed in Fig. 1 as the enve-
lope of the amplitude variations detected during the period of the
sweep. The close spacing of the receiver virtually eliminates veloc-
ity effects in this response. Therefore, we can convert the linear time
scale of the Fig. 1 display to a linear frequency scale. The receiver
response can be converted electronically to a trace that represents
the outline of the upper half of the envelope of amplitude variations.
The excitation log consists of foot-by-foot records of these traces.
When these records are presented on a conventional log depth scale,
they have the appearance of a variable density log (VDL) display of
waveform data.
Fig. 2 shows a pair of examples of excitation logs presented in this
way. In this kind of display, wellbore resonances appear as black
bands whose degree of prominence indicates the relative amplitude
of the corresponding resonances. The changes in resonance charac-
teristics with depth lend character to the excitation log. The pair of
logs in Fig. 2 represents wellbores with contrasting conditions. The
logged interval for Well A on the left is a sequence of shallow, weak-
ly-consolidated, heavy-oil sands in Kern County, California. The
logged interval for Well B on the right is a deeper, gas-pay sandstone
in Webb County, Texas. These highly contrasting lithologies lead to
highly contrasting excitation logs. The major resonances in the low-
rigidity sands of Well A are confined to high frequencies. Those in
the high-rigidity sandstone of Well B are restricted to low frequen-
cies. In Well A, there is a very strong resonance near 18 kHz, which
persists throughout the logged interval. A weaker resonance near 9
kHz only appears in specific intervals. A much weaker resonance
near 13 kHz is present in scattered intervals, mainly between 300
and 360 ft. In Well B there are two major resonances near 3 and 8
kHz, which appear throughout the logged interval.
The logs of Fig. 2 show that wellbore resonances are well defined
and that they often persist over long intervals. Experience in these
and other wells shows that wellbore resonances are sensitive to
changes in particular formation properties, such as lithology. They
also can be sensitive to fluid saturation conditions in the formation,
as shown by the example of Fig. 3. The excitation log on the left was
SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1996

Fig. 1Acoustic tool used to generate wellbore excitation logs.
run in a cored well in Kern County, California, through an interval
containing heavy-oil sands. The oil saturated zones, identified from
core analysis, are indicated by the black bars on the right side of the
excitation log. The oil zones correlate well with the electric log
shown on the right side of the figure. The excitation log shows a cor-
relation with the wellbore resonance near 8 kHz, which is present
only in the oil zones.
The excitation log is little dependent on transmitter resonances.
However, a wellbore resonance cannot be excited unless the trans-
mitter generates a fair amount of energy in the resonance band. The
ideal transmitter for excitation logs would be one with a constant
output over the entire acoustic band. The best practical substitute is
a transmitter with many resonances spread rather evenly across the
Fig. 2VDL display of excitation logs run in cored intervals of two wells with contrasting lithologies.
SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1996
acoustic band. One way to achieve this is with stacked Helmholtz
resonators.4 A transmitter of this type was used to obtain the logs of
Figs. 2 and 3.
Experience has shown that the major resonances in excitation
logs are not very sensitive to wellbore diameter. An excitation log
was run in a wellbore drilled with a 97/8 in. bit and run again in the
same wellbore after it was reamed with a 12 in. bit. Enlarging the
hole produced changes in relative amplitudes of the major reso-
nances but did not shift their frequencies or introduce new reso-
nances. We infer from results such as these that few of the major res-
onances are associated with radial wellbore modes.
The excitation log defines the major wellbore resonances but of-
fers little information about their origins. It provides no way to iden-
tify the associated wellbore modes (compressional, shear, Stoneley,
etc.). Information about the mode of vibration can be obtained
through travel time measurements made with a long-spaced tool us-
ing multiple receivers. A means must be provided to drive the trans-
mitter of this tool with a sine wave tone burst of selectable frequen-
cy. Travel time logs can then be obtained in each of the major
resonance bands of the excitation log. These logs can be used to
identify the mode associated with each resonance band. Acoustic
logging with a multiple-receiver, long spaced tool, driven by a tone
burst of chosen frequency, is basic to the SMAL method.
In practice it would be impractical to run a SMAL log for each
wellbore resonance. The practical value of the SMAL method lies
in understanding the effects of resonance phenomena and using
them in applications where they provide specific benefits. We shall
present a number of examples of such applications.
Signal Enhancement
One of the major benefits of the SMAL method is signal enhance-
ment. In some formations, it is difficult to obtain good quality com-
pressional or Stoneley wave data because of low signal-to-noise ra-
tio. By exciting the wellbore in one of its strong resonances, the
strengths of compressional, shear, or Stoneley waves can be greatly
enhanced, often by orders of magnitude. In addition, it is often pos-
81

Fig. 3Excitation log compared with electric log and core data
in a sequence of heavy oil sands, Kern County, CA.
sible to enhance one of these modes at the expense of others by using
resonances within certain frequency bands.
Fig. 4 shows an example of compressional wave enhancement by
the SMAL method. The logs shown here were obtained in a diato-
mite interval in a light-oil producing well in Kern County, Califor-
nia. Acoustic data were needed in this interval to aid in the design
of a sequence of staged fracturing treatments, the normal comple-
tion procedure in this area.5 The log on the right was obtained with
Mobils long-spaced acoustic tool,6 driven in the conventional
broad band excitation mode. The VDL display, shown here, is the
signal obtained at the near receiver in a dual-receiver configuration.
It shows tube waves throughout the logged interval but compres-
sional waves are very weak or absent, except in the brief interval,
2220-40 ft. Compressional wave velocity data are missing or unreli-
able through most of the interval of interest. The SMAL log, on the
left, was run with the same tool configuration but the transmitter was
driven with a 3-cycle tone burst at 3 kHz. An excitation log, run in
another well in the area, had identified this as a strong wellbore reso-
nance frequency. The SMAL log shows that this resonance stimu-
lates compressional waves quite effectively in this slow formation.
It excites strong compressional waves that yield reliable velocity
data throughout the logged interval. In this case, the compressional
waves have been enhanced by at least two orders of magnitude.
Stoneley waves are still relatively strong in the SMAL log. Howev-
er, it is clear that the SMAL method has preferentially enhanced
compressional waves at the expense of Stoneley waves where the
energy is known to be concentrated at lower frequencies.
Another example of preferential signal enhancement is illustrated
in Fig 5. The SMAL logs shown here were run in a shallow, gravel-
pack interval in a heavy-oil Tulare sand in Kern County, California.
They were run at a frequency of 3 kHz with both a long-spaced and
an ultra-long-spaced, dual-receiver configuration. The VDL dis-
play on the left shows the receiver signal at a spacing 13.5 ft from
the transmitter and, on the right, at a spacing of 23.5 ft. As indicated
in the accompanying well diagram, the completion is an under-
reamed gravel pack placed outside a slotted liner of 65/8 in. ID. The
upper part of the logged interval is terminated by a cement squeeze
zone and has been heated by steam injection.
82
A conventional acoustic log, run in this kind of completion, ex-
cites strong high-frequency ringing of the liner and little detectable
formation signal. By contrast, the SMAL display of Fig. 5 shows
strong formation signal and relatively little excitation of the liner. In
this case, exciting the wellbore in an appropriate resonance mode
greatly enhances formation waves at the expense of liner vibrations.
In Fig. 5, strong Stoneley waves appear throughout the logged inter-
val and strong p-waves are present in all but a small portion of the
heated zone. The strength of p-waves and the sag in tube wave arriv-
als in this heated zone correlate roughly with temperature. This cor-
relation suggests that much of the formation rigidity and grain-to-
grain bonding is associated with oil viscosity.
The amplitude of the liner vibrations in Fig. 5 also may provide in-
formation about the quality of the gravel pack analogous to informa-
tion provided by a cement bond log. The strong liner vibrations below
the gravel pack suggest that the strength of the liner signal is indica-
tive of gravel pack quality. In this context, strong liner vibrations
would indicate voids or poor packing of the gravel pack sand.
The SMAL method also offers benefits in shear wave logging
with dipole tools. By operating the dipole tool at a fixed, low fre-
quency, dispersion errors can be avoided and other undesirable, fre-
quency-related effects eliminated. Fig. 6 shows an example of these
effects. The dual-receiver logs presented here were obtained with
Mobils dipole tool7 in a slow formation in a Kern County, Califor-
nia well. The log on the left was run by the conventional broadband
method with pulse excitation of the bender source. The log on the
right was run by the SMAL method using a 1 kHz sine wave excita-
tion of 3-cycle duration.
The broadband method excites resonances in the bender source
at a number of frequencies corresponding to resonances in the bend-
er bar. The result, as shown in Fig. 6, is a frequency mixing effect
in the early shear arrivals. The earliest arrivals are clearly of lower
frequency than later ones. The late arrivals have a frequency of 3
kHz, corresponding to the strongest resonance in the dipole source.
Processing these data yields different shear wave travel times, de-
pending on which event in the wave train is used as a time marker.
Filtering produces similar uncertainties. By contrast, the shear wave
train in the SMAL records is constant in frequency and the com-
puted travel times are little dependent on the choice of events. Filter-
ing does not affect travel time results and is not needed in any event.
In the broadband log, the shear arrivals are preceded by strong, 3
kHz p-waves mixed with high frequency fluid waves. These modes
are largely eliminated in the SMAL records. The early, fixed-time
arrivals in the SMAL display are due to cross-talk effects, which
could be eliminated with more refined circuitry.
The most important benefit of the SMAL method used with a di-
pole source is to provide reliable, high energy, low frequency sig-
nals. The SMAL data in Fig. 6, obtained at a frequency of 1 kHz,
yield travel times which are some 20 to 30 microseconds/ft less than
those for the broadband data, obtained at frequencies closer to 3
kHz. This result is consistent with theoretical dispersion relations.3
The broadband data can be filtered to remove high frequency com-
ponents. However, the quality of the filtered data is still dependent
on the signal to noise ratio in the low frequency band.
Q Data from Standing Wave Decay
There is much evidence in acoustic logging experience that well-
bore resonances arise from resonance cavity effects associated with
the logging tool. It appears that a liquid-filled wellbore containing
a suspended tool behaves much like a resonance cavity in which
standing waves can be generated. This behavior seems to be
associated with reflections of acoustic energy by elements of the
tool, particularly the ends. The most convincing evidence of such
reflections is provided by tube wave logging experiments. Fig. 7
shows a Tube Wave Reflection Log8 run in a cased wellbore with
a tool similar to that of Fig. 1. In this case, the transmitter was driven
with a 3 cycle tone burst at 500 Hz. This frequency excites strong
tube waves that travel along the wellbore and are partially reflected
by various wellbore features. The receiver signal is monitored for
a period of 100 milliseconds to detect these reflections.
SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1996
 Fig. 4Illustration of compressional wave signal enhancement by the SMAL method in a gassy
diatomite interval.
The log of Fig. 7 shows a variety of tube wave reflections. The ori-
gins of reflections such as these are fully discussed in Ref. 8. Of par-
ticular interest is the very strong reflection trace labeled 1, which
is the direct reflection from the bottom of the hole. The weaker reflec-
tion, labeled 2, is the first multiple of this direct reflection. It repre-
sents tube wave energy that was reflected from the bottom and trav-
eled back up to the tool, where it was reflected back downhole to
travel the same path a second time. The slope of this trace is exactly
half that of the strong trace, confirming that the reflected energy trav-
eled twice as far. The much weaker reflection, labeled 3, corre-
sponds to tube waves which have made three traverses. The slope of
this trace is exactly one-third that of the strong trace. Results similar
to these can be observed in open-hole logging experiments as well.
These results clearly show that the logging tool acts as a partial
reflector of tube waves. We can assume that the reflections are
associated with the change in liquid volume produced by the body
of the tool. This change occurs at each end of the tool. Therefore,
each end must act as a partial reflector of tube waves. This means
that some fraction of the tube wave energy produced by the transmit-
ter is internally reflected by the ends of the tool. It is well known that
tube waves, being interface waves, are largely confined to the region
of the wellbore wall.9 There is little radial loss of energy by radiation
into the earth, provided the tube wave velocity is lower than any of
the body wave velocities in the surrounding medium. This radial
containment, combined with the internal reflections at the ends of
SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1996
the tool, provide a leaky confinement of tube waves within the re-
gion of the tool.
Thus, the logging tool and wellbore form a leaky resonant cavity
for tube waves. Standing waves, which are characteristic of this cav-
ity, can be generated by using the SMAL method to drive the trans-
mitter for prolonged periods at the appropriate frequency.
Standing tube waves, generated by the SMAL method, have a
very practical application in measuring a Q associated with damping
properties of the formation. Q data are useful for seismic modeling
and formation evaluation. A measure of Q can be obtained from the
decay of standing tube waves following the end of the SMAL excita-
tion period. We assume that this decay occurs in accordance with the
damping of free vibrations. The method of determining Q from such
decay data is well known.10 In applying this method to wellbore
measurements, we assume that damping is mainly the result of the
absorption of tube wave energy by the formation material within the
tool boundaries and immediately surrounding the wellbore.
Fig. 8 shows tube wave decline data produced by the SMAL
method. These results were obtained with a tool similar to that of
Fig. 1 in a shallow Eagle Ford shale interval in a laboratory test well.
In this case, the transmitter was driven by a 17 cycle tone burst at a
frequency of 1,200 Hz. During the excitation period provided by the
tone burst, the tube wave amplitude in Fig. 8 builds up to approach
steady state conditions. The tone burst ends just past the cycle peak
labeled 0. Starting at this time, the tube wave vibrations are assumed
to decay in accordance with formation damping of free tube wave
83
 Fig. 5Illustration of formation signal enhancement by the SMAL method in a slotted-liner, grav-
el-pack completion.
vibrations. This assumption neglects the leakage of tube wave energy.
It also implies that the end of the tone burst represents an instanta-
neous removal of all tube wave driving forces. In reality, the driving
force does not cease at the end of the tone burst, but decays at a rate
determined by the Q of the transmitter. For our measurements, we
used a flexure disk transmitter with Q+8. We assume that, in forma-
tions with Q >> 8, the effects of source damping can be ignored.
By neglecting these source-damping and leakage effects, we can
make use of the simple relations for damping of free vibrations.10
In particular, we can take
d + * log eA i)1A i, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
where Xn and Xn )1 are the amplitudes of successive maxima and
d is a constant called the logarithmic decrement. It follows from Eq.
1 that
d + log e A i * log e X j j * i, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
84
where i and j are cycle numbers, counted from the time excitation
ends, with jui.
Fig. 9 shows a logarithmic plot of the decline in tube wave ampli-
tude in Fig. 8 vs. the labeled cycle numbers. The fit to a straight line
is excellent, with a correlation coefficient of 0.9993. This good fit
supports the assumption that the decaying tube waves behave in ac-
cordance with damping of free vibrations. The value of d can be
used to compute Q from the relation
Q + pd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
The data of Fig. 9 give Q+17, a reasonable value for the shallow
Eagle Ford shale interval.
We have evaluated this method in a series of open-hole logging
tests. For these tests we modified the tool of Fig. 1 to provide an
array of three receivers spaced approximately 18 in. apart. The ad-
vantages of the receiver array will be discussed later. For the logging
tests, we selected three types of formations, which were expected to
SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1996

Fig. 6Shear wave logs obtained by the conventional broad-
band method, on the left, and by the SMAL method on the right.
provide a large range of Q values. They included a weakly consoli-
dated sand in a Gulf-Coast well, a competent Dakota sandstone in
a mid-continent well, and a well-cemented Edwards limestone in a
central-Texas well. Examples of the SMAL-generated waveforms
obtained in each of these formations are shown in Fig. 10 with corre-
sponding Q values. In these examples, we used very long tone bursts
to assure reaching steady state conditions. Later studies showed that
the duration of the tone burst is not critical. Tube wave decay data
were found to be independent of the length of the tone burst as long
as it extends beyond a few cycles.
The Q values of Fig. 10 are consistent with laboratory Q data re-
ported in the literature.11 Some laboratory data, which illustrate this
consistency, are given in Table 1. These results were obtained in
core and quarry materials representing a range of lithologies similar
to those of Fig. 10. Samples 1-3 are weakly consolidated sands simi-
Fig. 8Tube wave buildup and decline data obtained by the
SMAL method in a shallow Eagle Ford shale zone.
SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1996
Fig. 7Tube wave reflection log showing multiple reflections
between hole bottom and the logging tool.
lar to the Gulf-Coast sand of Fig. 10. Samples 4-7 are competent
sandstones similar to the Dakota sandstone of Fig. 10. Samples 8-10
are hard limestones similar to the Edwards limestone of Fig. 10. QC
in Table 1 is the damping factor associated with compressional wave
propagation. The QC values were derived from measurements made
with spring-mass oscillator systems.11 They were computed from
QE and QG, which were the measured quantities. QE , the component
of Q associated with pure longitudinal displacements, was mea-
sured with a longitudinal oscillator system. QG , the component
associated with pure shear displacements, was measured with a tor-
sional oscillator system. QS , the damping factor associated with
shear wave propagation, is equal to QG .12 The longitudinal and tor-
sional oscillator measurements also provided the listed values of
Youngs Modulus E and Shear Modulus G, which are given in units
of millions of psi. All the oscillator measurements were made under
a confining pressure of 1,000 psi and at the indicated water satura-
tions, which fall in the range 0.7 to 0.8. Under these conditions, Q
changes little with changes in confining stress and water saturation.
Oscillator frequencies were in the 100 to 500 Hz range, close
Fig. 9Logarithmic plot of the decline in peak amplitude vs.
cycle number from the waveform data of Fig. 8.
85
Fig. 10Examples of tube wave decay data obtained by the SMAL
method in formations with a range of log-derived Q values.

enough to the 1,200 Hz logging frequency to eliminate dispersion

effects. Porosity, f, and air permeability, k, were determined by
standard core analysis. The three log-derived Q values in Fig. 10 are
consistent with the laboratory Q values for the three corresponding
types of core and quarry samples in Table 1.
In Q logs obtained in sand intervals by the SMAL method, we find
a sensitivity to fluid saturation which is consistent with laboratory
data. Fig. 11 shows a Q log run through a weakly consolidated Greta
sand interval in a well in Jackson County, Texas. Resistivity, Natural
Gamma, and Caliper logs are included for comparison. Log analy-
sis, together with core data, define the sequence of gas, oil, and wa-
ter zones indicated in Fig. 11. The Q data are sensitive to saturation
conditions in each of these zones. Q is much lower in the oil zone
than in the gas or water zones. Also, over most of the water zone, Q
is a little larger than in the gas zone. Both the gas-oil and oil-water
contacts are well defined by abrupt shifts in Q. In gas sands which
are free of water or oil zones, we find little variation in Q as long as
the lithology does not change significantly.
The Q logs obtained in the Dakota sandstone and in the Gulf Coast
sand of Fig. 11 can be compared with curves of Q vs. water satura-
tion from laboratory measurements. Fig. 12 shows Q curves ob-
tained by the oscillator method of Ref. 11 in a pair of core samples
covering the complete range of gas-water saturations. The Glass-
cock sand is a weakly consolidated Gulf Coast sand like the Greta.
The Gunsight sandstone is a competent sandstone similar to the Da-
Fig. 11SMAL-derived Q Log obtained through a weakly con-
solidated sand interval in a Gulf Coast well.
kota. In Fig. 12 there is a much stronger dependence of Q on water
saturation in the weakly consolidated Glasscock sand than in the
competent Gunsight sandstone. In both cases, the major Q varia-
tions occur below the irreducible water saturation, labeled Iw in the
figure. Approaching 100% water saturation, the weakly consoli-
dated Glasscock sand shows an increase in Q, but the Q of the Gun-
sight sandstone remains virtually constant. The Q logs in the Dakota
sandstone and in the Gulf Coast sand of Fig. 11 are consistent with
these laboratory curves.
Thick-Wall Pipe Experiments
To gain a better understanding of logging results obtained by the
SMAL method, we developed thick-wall pipe models for laboratory
experiments. These models behave like resonance cavities with res-
onance characteristics similar in many ways to those found in well-
bore logging. Details of experiments conducted with the pipe mod-
els can be found in the earlier version of this paper presented at the

TABLE 1Q AND RELATED ROCK PROPERTIES DATA FROM LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

ON CORE AND QUARRY ROCK SAMPLES
Sample QC QE QG SW f k-md E106psi G106psi
1. Brent SandN. Sea 8.3 27 72 .75 .31 1.06 .409
2. Rsvr SandO/S Nigeria 8.5 10 41 .80 .14 .63 1.99 .937
3. Frio SandO/S Gulf 13 17 38 .80 .16 1.1 2.14 .979
4. Rsvr SSOregon 18 44 120 .75 .06 4.81 1.93
5. Rsvr SSW. Texas 26 28 46 .76 .14 .57 3.16 1.50
6. Rsvr SSW. Texas 34 37 48 .78 .28 96 1.66 .776
7. Berea SS 66 80 100 .75 .21 448 2.26 .974
8. Carthage Ls 56 92 100 .74 .04 .03 7.52 2.73
9. Lueders Ls 215 300 350 .71 .19 1.5 3.97 1.56
10. Solenhofen Ls 310 400 450 .70 .01 .02 8.00 3.18

86 SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1996


Fig. 12Laboratory Q data obtained in core samples of the fri-
able Glasscock sand the well cemented Gunsight sandstone.11
1992 SPE Annual Technical Conference.13 The thick-wall pipe ex-
periments offer insights regarding resonances observed in the well-
bore logs of Figs. 2 and 3. They support the concept, discussed earli-
er, that various elements of the logging tool, suspended in the
wellbore, act as acoustic reflectors which give rise to standing
waves. The cavity wall material also plays a role in determining res-
onance frequencies. Thus, lithology is a factor in determining well-
bore resonance characteristics. These and other results of the pipe
resonance experiments are summarized in the Conclusions.
Conclusions
Wellbore resonances occur under many conditions in acoustic log-
ging operations. Their existence can be demonstrated by means of
excitation logs generated by driving a transmitter with a swept fre-
quency tone burst over the acoustic band. These excitation logs ex-
cite wellbore resonances that are sensitive to formation properties,
such as lithology and saturation conditions.
Resonance phenomena can be used to advantage in many acous-
tic logging applications. SMAL has been developed for this pur-
pose. It is based on driving an acoustic transmitter with a sine wave
tone burst of selected frequency and duration to obtain useful in-
formation about formation properties.
One of the important benefits of the SMAL method is signal en-
hancement in formations where particular acoustic modes are very
weak. By exciting the wellbore in one of its strong resonances, it is
possible to greatly enhance compressional, shear, or Stoneley
waves. The SMAL method can be used to enhance one mode at the
expense of others. In cased wells, or in slotted liner completions,
SMAL can be used to greatly enhance formation signals at the ex-
pense of pipe vibrations.
Practical use of wave enhancement phenomena has been made in
several acoustic logging applications. In shear wave logging with
bender tools, it has provided a way to virtually eliminate compres-
sional waves and the attendant problems in determining shear wave
travel time. Also, errors owing to dispersion effects and frequency
mixing have been greatly reduced by driving the bender source at
a suitably low, fixed frequency. Tube wave enhancement in cased
wellbores has been critical to the development of fracture diagnostic
logs. The attenuation and reflection of low frequency tube waves
has provided a way to estimate fracture conductivity and to define
the extent of a hydraulically fractured interval behind casing.
The SMAL method can be used to obtain Q logs from the decay
of standing tube waves. This application takes advantage of the res-
onance cavity formed by the combination of wellbore and logging
tool. Tube waves are contained within the region of the tool by virtue
of the nonradiative nature of interface waves, combined with partial
reflections at each end of the tool. This leaky containment allows
standing tube waves to be developed by driving an acoustic tool
with a prolonged tone burst. The decay of tube wave energy follow-
ing the end of the tone burst provides a measure of the Q of the
formation.
SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1996
Q logs obtained in this way provide a measure of the damping of
acoustic energy by the formation immediately surrounding the log-
ging tool. This acoustic damping is sensitive to certain properties of
the formation, including matrix rigidity and saturation conditions.
The Q log shows promise as a lithology tool and as a means of differ-
entiating between gas, oil, and water legs in a producing interval.
Q logs, obtained by this method in a weakly consolidated sand,
a hard sandstone, and a limestone, are consistent with laboratory
measurements in core samples from similar formations. Q logs
through a gas-oil-water zone show abrupt diversions at each of the
contacts. The Q values within each zone are consistent with labora-
tory data and theoretical predictions. Q data through a gas-produc-
ing sandstone interval show little variation, as expected.
Laboratory experiments in thick-wall pipe models are very help-
ful in understanding resonance phenomena in wellbores. Liquid-
filled pipes act like resonance cavities which give rise to many of the
same phenomena observed in SMAL logging of wellbores. Reso-
nances can be excited by acoustic sources driven at the proper fre-
quency and placed in the proper location along the pipe axis. Stand-
ing waves develop when the acoustic source is driven at a resonant
frequency. They arise from coupling between pressure waves in the
fluid and displacement waves in the pipe wall. They are character-
ized by an integral number of nodes and antinodes in the fluid and
wall waves over the length of the pipe. The strong resonances corre-
spond to some degree of coherence between the nodes and anti-
nodes of free-standing waves, which would occur if there were no
coupling between the fluid column and pipe wall. However, it is the
free-standing wave conditions in the wall which mainly determine
how the nodes and antinodes are distributed in the fluid. Resonances
in the fluid column and acoustic source play secondary roles in de-
termining the pipe resonances.
Thick-wall pipe models can be used to evaluate Q logs obtained
by the SMAL method. Q values can be derived from the decay of
standing waves in the fluid column and in the pipe walls. Results ob-
tained by this method in the resin pipe model are consistent with lab-
oratory Q data obtained from spring-mass oscillator measurements.
Many of the characteristics of pipe model resonances are consis-
tent with SMAL experience in wellbores. From the similarities we
infer that wellbore resonances can arise from fluid wave reflections
much like those in the pipe models. The existence of such reflections
is demonstrated by tube wave reflection logs. Sources of wellbore
reflections are to be found in elements of the tool body, such as the
ends of the tool, where local changes in fluid volume occur. Under
prolonged excitation these reflections give rise to standing waves.
Because standing waves correspond to steady-state conditions, their
phase and amplitude relations have potential value in acoustic log-
ging applications.
Nomenclature
Ai ,Ai)1+ amplitudes of successive maxima in decay curve
d+ logarithmic decrement
E+ Youngs modulus
f+ porosity
G+ shear modulus
k+ permeability
IW + irreducible water saturation
i,j+ cycle numbers
Q+ damping factor+inverse attenuation
QC + component of Q associated with compressional wave
propagation
QE + component of Q associated with pure longitudinal
motion
QG + component of Q associated with pure rotational
motion
QS + component of Q associated with shear wave
propagation
SW + water saturation
87
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank J. Zemanek, K.A. Alhilali, D.M. Wil-
liams, G.P. Moeckel, R.S. Timmer and T.L. Kirst for helpful sugges-
tions and for reading the manuscript. S.V. Holcomb, S.J. Manzi, E.
H. Burgess, D.L. Payton, C.W. McRight and P. Ozanich collected
much of the log data. C.L. Dennis designed parts of the data acquisi-
tion systems. G.L. Zumwalt, S.J. Manzi, and B. Ledbetter carried
out much of the laboratory work. S.J. Manzi and P. Ozanich pro-
cessed most of the log data. We thank Mobil Research and Develop-
ment Corp. for permission to publish this paper.
References
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88
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SI Metric Conversion Factors
cycles/sec 1.0* E)00 +Hz
ft 3.048* E*01 +m
psi 6.894 757 E)00 +kPa
*Conversion factor is exact. SPEFE
W.L. Medlin retired from Mobil R&D Corp. in Dallas in 1992. He
was a scientist at Mobil. He holds BS and PhD degrees in physics
from the U. of Texas at Austin. D.P. Schmitt is a member of Mobile
Upstream Strategic Research Center in Dallas. Previously, he
was on the geophysical staff at the Massachusetts Inst. of
Technology. He holds a PhD degree in geophysics from the U.
of Grenoble, France.
Medlin Schmitt
SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1996