International Journal of Consumer Studies ISSN 1470-6423

Is the urban Indian consumer ready for clothing

with eco-labels?
Paromita Goswami
Department of Marketing, Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar, India

Keywords
India, eco-labelled clothing, consumers,
willingness to pay more.
Correspondence
Paromita Goswami, Department of Marketing,
Xavier Institute of Management, Xavier
Square, Room 121, CENDERET Building,
Bhubaneswar, Orissa-751013, India.
E-mail: paromita@ximb.ac.in;
paromitagoswami@hotmail.com
doi: 10.1111/j.1470-6431.2008.00716.x
Abstract
India has witnessed rapid strides of development at sustained growth rates of more than 8%
and has seen a huge spurt in consumption. Consequently, it has been estimated that the
increased consumption may result in the country becoming one of the leading offenders
relating to environmental pollution. The textiles industry in India is traditionally one of the
worst offenders of pollution, with its small units following outdated technology processes.
One opportunity to reduce the environmental impact of clothing industry in India is to
concentrate textile production within environmentally certified or eco-labelled clothing. In
the absence of existing research, this study investigates whether the urban Indian popula-
tion would be interested in clothing with eco-labels. The results suggest the existence of
a segment of consumers who are positively motivated towards eco-labelled garments.
This segment profile is described in terms of demographic and psychographic variables.
Managerial implications and future directions are suggested.

respectively, in 2006 with an annual percentage change of 11%

1. Introduction
The environment is emerging as one of the most important busi-
ness issues of the decade (e.g. Carson and Moulden, 1991). The
ecological footprint1 of humanity has exceeded the bio-capacity of
earth by 25% (Living Planet Report, 2006). The recent United
Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Report place the probability of the link between human activity
and global warming at more than 90%, against the 6690% like-
lihood it signalled in 2001 (IPCC Report, 2007).
India is growing at a rapid pace with the World Bank viewing
India as the strongest performer in South Asia with an estimated
9% GDP growth in 2007. This GDP growth is expected to remain
vibrant despite decelerating moderately to 8.4% in 2008 (Burns,
2008). While sustained growth rates of India of 8% or more will
ensure economic progress, a recent World Bank report warned that
the resulting changes in consumption patterns may have serious
environmental implications given the polluting processes of
certain industries (World Bank, 2007). Textiles belong to the red
category of major polluting processes as this sector pollute water
and air to a significant degree and cause hazardous waste
(Domain-b.com, 2007). Indias ranking in world trade is fifth in
clothing and seventh in textiles and as per the latest available
World Trade Organization (WTO) data the percentage share of
India in the global clothing, and textiles trade was 3.3% and 4.3%,
1
Comparison of human demand and consumption of natural resources with
the Earths ecological capacity to regenerate them.
and 10% over 2005 (WTO, 2007). The textile industry is inher-
ently unsustainable, has a wide environmental and toxicological
impact and has been condemned as being one of the worst offend-
ers on earth in terms of pollution (Walters et al., 2005; Interna-
tional Centre for Creativity Innovation Sustainability, 2008;
Oecotextiles.com, 2008). Environmental issues arise at all stages
of the textile and apparel supply chain and the expansion of textile
production and consumption has contributed to increasing pollu-
tion, water shortages, fossil fuel and raw material depletion, and
climate change (Textile Outlook International, 2007). Although
environmental issues arise at all stages of the textile and apparel
supply chain, most of the environmental footprint of textiles occur
during production, largely as a result of the amount of chemical
auxiliaries required to produce finished fabrics (Walters et al.,
2005). The technological development in global textile indus-
tries has been rapid, but the textile industry in India has largely
been driven by small units that practice age-old methods of
bleaching and dyeing, which adversely affect the balance of
the local ecology. A case in point is Tiruppur which produces 90%
of cotton knitwear of India where the outdated methods of pro-
duction have caused immense damage to rivers, ground water,
agricultural land and the health of the ecosystem (Jacob and
Azariah, 1997). Pointing out the immense damage to the environ-
ment caused by the textile industry of Tirrupur, Nelliyat (2004)
suggests that the role that the consumers may play could be
significant in pressurizing the industry to introduce clean

438 International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 438446 The Author

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P. Goswami
technology and demand for pollution-free garments. Conse-
quently, a valid research question in this context is: Are Indian
consumers ready to demand pollution-free garments? If so, what
are the characteristics of these consumers? Moreover, would they
be willing to pay a premium for such apparel? This paper seeks to
respond to these questions.
2. Literature review
2.1 Eco-labels
Just by looking at a textile product it is difficult to see whether it
has been made from conventional or organic cotton, or dyed with
non-toxic or harmful dye-stuffs (Allwood et al., 2006). Hence it is
not easy for the consumer to make an environmentally responsible
purchase decision as one should ideally consider fibre production,
product manufacturing process, as well as what will happen to the
product during and after their useful life (Chen and Burns, 2006).
Therefore, a class of eco-labels is being introduced with require-
ments which manufacturers must meet before they can call their
products green (Allwood et al., 2006). Environment-friendly
labels or eco-labels manifest the efforts of an industry to become
or be perceived as environment-friendly (Nimon and Beghin,
1999). Eco-labels are normally issued either by Government sup-
ported or private enterprises once it has been proved that the
product of the applicant has met the criteria set by them for the
label (Hyvrinen, 1999). For the purpose of issuing eco-labels in
respect of textile products generally the Cradle-to-Grave approach
is followed, that is, criteria are developed on analysing the entire
life cycle of the product commencing with extraction of raw mate-
rials, progressing through the stages of production, distribution
and utilization and disposal after use (3TS, 2008). Although a
product may have met all the criteria for an eco-label certification,
a manufacturer would go for such certification only if it brings
credibility to the claims of the manufacturer regarding the
environment-friendliness of his/her ware. In other words, an eco-
label is like any other product and has to earn its acceptability and
credibility in the marketplace (Knowledge Bank IIMM, 2008).
2.2 Value of eco-labels in India
ko-Tex standard 100, the worlds leading eco label for textiles,
has granted 20,000 certificates to millions of textile products
(Centexbel.be, 2008). Indian companies like Reliance Industries
Ltd., Arvind Mills, Alok Industries, Rajasthan Spinning and
Weaving Mills, Tirupur Exporters Association, Gujrat Garment
Manufacturers Association are all rolling out environment-
friendly textiles not only for exports but also for domestic con-
sumption (Mehta, 2008). Manufacturers such as Mumbai-based
Alok Industries Ltd. have decided to increase its output of organic
cotton from 5% in 20072008 to 15% in 20082009 (Jiwrajka,
MD, Alok Industries as quoted by Mehta, 2008). Such green
options being expensive, consumers would believe manufacturers
claims on the environment-friendliness of products only if such
claims are substantiated through third party independent certifica-
tions. This aspect has been emphasized by DSouza et al. (2007a)
who argued that environmental labels are more credible when
endorsed by third party labelling experts.
To enhance awareness about the environmental impacts of
products, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government
International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 438446 The Author
Journal compilation 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Clothing with eco-labels in India
of India (GoI) has initiated a scheme in 1991, which is basically a
scheme of labelling eco-friendly products (Challa, 2008). This
scheme aims at distinguishing through the Eco-Mark, any
product that is made, used or disposed of in a way that signifi-
cantly reduces the adverse effect that it would otherwise have on
the environment, with the Earthen Pot as the logo of this scheme.
The GoI has also evolved voluntary eco standards for the eco-
labelling of the textile items and the criteria for environmentally
friendly textiles in consultation with the Indian Textile Trade and
Industry (notified in the Gazette on October 8, 1996 by Ministry of
Environment and Forests) (3TS, 2008). While eco-labelling in
other countries is gaining popularity, the initiatives taken by the
GoI are still waiting for a breakthrough (Chaturvedi and Nagpal,
2003).
2.3 Consumers and eco-labels
Lifestyle or psychographic variables explain green commitment
better than traditional socio-economic background variables
(Haanpaa, 2007). Individual environmental consciousness (EC) is
known to influence decision on behaviour (Shen et al., 2005). It is
surprising to note that even when environmental concern is high,
the practices of environmentally responsible behaviour are not in
congruence with the level of concern and knowledge (Said et al.,
2003). Similar findings have also been reported in certain coun-
tries like Japan where EC is increasing whereas environmentally
friendly behaviour is not (Suzuki et al., 2004). Again, although
no strong relationship was found between environmental knowl-
edge and attitudes (Martin and Simintiras, 1995), environmental
attitudes are found to be the most consistent predictor of pro-
environmental/ecological purchasing behaviour (Schlegelmilch
et al., 1996; Fraj and Martinez, 2007). It has been emphasized that
it is important to include the intention variable in models predict-
ing environmentally responsible purchase behaviour and cau-
tioned that the failure to do so in some previous studies may have
contributed to the low correlation found between environmental
attitudes and behaviour (Follows and Jobber, 2000). There are
positive correlations between EC, environmental certification
involvement, perceived importance of certification and the will-
ingness to pay (WTP) more for environmentally friendly products
(Vlosky et al., 1999). Vlosky et al. (1999) reported environmental
certification involvement and perceived importance of certification
to be the strongest predictors of WTP more for environmentally
certified products.
But do consumers use information in eco-labels when purchas-
ing clothing? Dickson (2001) empirically analysed whether con-
sumers making apparel purchases would use a label guaranteeing
certain working conditions found only a small percentage of con-
sumers to be influenced by the label. However, the label they
tested was a value-based label guaranteeing employee working
conditions rather than environmental certification. However, the
findings of a recent study in Australia suggest that with the passage
of time, acceptance of eco-labels by consumers may have
increased. Here, shoppers responded more positively to product-
related environmental messages when purchasing clothing than
cause-related messages; and environmental claims were more
credible if attributed to the green brands than to neutral brands
(Phau and Ong, 2007). Hyvrinen (1999) questioned whether
average consumers will be willing to pay a premium for an
439
Clothing with eco-labels in India
environmentally friendly product if there is a choice of an identical
and a cheaper product which does not carry an eco-label and
thus, suggested conducting detailed and objective surveys among
consumers to find out whether they are indeed interested in eco-
matters and at what price. In a study to identify the market
valuation of environmental attributes of apparel goods, Nimon and
Beghin (1999) identified a significant and robust premium for
environment-friendly organic fibres embodied in the apparel
goods. Here, consumers may opt for higher-priced eco-labelled
apparel as it may indicate higher quality of the product (Heisey,
1990). Similar perception has been found to exist among purchas-
ers of clothing from alternative trading organizations (non-profit
organizations marketing socially responsible products from devel-
oping countries) who felt such clothing was of superior quality
compared with the quality perceived by non-purchasers and other
product purchasers (Dickson and Littrell, 1997).
The relevant question in this context is whether Indian consum-
ers are ready for environmentally certified clothing products, and
if so, who are these consumers and are they willing to pay a
premium for such eco-labelled clothing.
2.4 Indian consumers and
environmental concerns
To understand the extent to which Indian consumers may be
willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products,
Greenbiz.com (2005) found that as many as 71% of online con-
sumers in India are willing to pay more for socially responsible
products. Interestingly this premium that Indian consumers are
willing to pay is significantly more than their counterparts in
developed nations like UK where it is only 47%. It is apparent that
Indians believe in the genuine need to consider environmental
issues and perceive people in India as willing to take environmen-
tally friendly steps to ameliorate environmental problems. Not-
withstanding a low level of environmental awareness, they also
report a high level of environmental concern and behaviour, are
willing to buy eco-products but feel constrained in their efforts
because of a dearth of such products in the market (Jain and Kaur,
2004). Jain and Kaur (2004) have also identified high environmen-
tal concern among Indians but did not look into specific environ-
mentally responsible behaviour. In a later study Jain and Kaur
(2006) emphasized on the usefulness of socio-demographics in
predicting the EC of Indian consumers but did not cluster green
consumers or profile them. Chitra (2007) examined the awareness,
knowledge, preference and attitude of Indian consumers towards
eco-friendly wood products, cosmetics, medicines and furniture
and segmented consumers into avoiders, adjusters, aspirants and
addicts with majority of customers classified as aspirants.
However, no previous study has analysed the relationship between
environmental awareness and various types of environmentally
friendly behaviours. In this paper an attempt is made to discern
environment-friendly purchase behaviour of clothing.
Besides, different environmentally responsible products require
individual investigation as each specific behavioural pattern has
its own cluster of predictors (Balderjahn, 1988). Additionally,
predictors of environmentally conscious consumer behaviour also
change over time, and ecologically conscious consumers of the
1990s differ from their predecessors (Roberts, 1996). Mass mar-
keting is no longer feasible in business today as consumers differ
440
P. Goswami
in their needs (Kotler et al., 2007). Segmentation of consumers is
therefore a necessity and identification of an appropriate segment
for marketing a particular product or service is to be done.
Besides, textile products with eco-labels being costlier than
apparel without eco-labels, we need to understand whether the
consumers are willing to pay more for such products. Hence the
variables we shall consider for segmenting the consumers are EC,
involvement in environmental certification, importance of certifi-
cation, and WTP more for environmentally certified cloth. Accord-
ingly, we shall investigate the following research questions:
1 Are there different typologies of Urban Indian Consumers in
terms of EC, involvement in environmental certification/eco-
labels, and perception of the importance of certification/eco-
labels?
2 If such typologies exist, does the WTP more for environmen-
tally certified/eco-labelled clothing vary across such typologies?
Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H1: There are different typologies of urban Indian consumers in
terms of EC, involvement in environmental certification/eco-labels
and perception of the importance of certification/eco-labels.
H2: The WTP more for environmentally certified/eco-labelled
clothing vary across typologies of consumers.
3. Methodology
The study was carried out in two metro cities (Kolkata and
Mumbai) and two non-metro cities (Guwahati and Bhubaneswar)
of India. A systematic sampling design was followed and mall
intercept method was used for data collection. To ensure the
systematic sampling design, every fifth customer leaving a mall/
shopping centre was approached to complete a structured ques-
tionnaire. The questionnaire comprised a battery of scales chosen
from available literature to assess the EC of consumers and their
perception of certification importance (Importance), involvement
in certification (Involvement) and their WTP premium for envi-
ronmentally certified clothing. All scales were adapted from
Vlosky et al. (1999). The scales were administered in the form of
Strongly Agree-Strongly Disagree five-point Likert Scales. Since
multi-item scales used in the study have been tested earlier for
validity and reliability, for the present study, only the reliability of
the scales were checked with Cronbachs alpha scores as Vlosky
et al. (1999) had previously conducted the study in a different
cultural climate. Table 1 details the scales used in the study
with Cronbachs alpha scores of the present study shown in
parentheses.
Additionally, demographic details of the respondents were also
recorded. The demographic details of the sample are provided in
Appendix 1. A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed of
which 20 had to be rejected for incomplete data. Hence the total
sample size for the study was 480. The questionnaires were admin-
istered by five interviewers between January and March 2007. To
test H1, the items of the scales were averaged to arrive at the scores
for EC, Importance, Involvement and WTP. The averaged items
were submitted for cluster analysis. Euclidean measure of distance
was used as it is the most commonly used measure (Malhotra,
2007). Hierarchical clustering using Wards method was used for
the purpose of clustering. Next, step-wise multiple discriminant
analysis was done to ascertain the facets that discriminated most
between the different clusters. Crosstabs and chi-square test of
International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 438446 The Author
Journal compilation 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
P. Goswami
Table 1 Scales used in the study
Environmental consciousness (Cronbachs alpha = 0.546)
I believe that environmental information on product label is
important
I generally believe in the environmental information on product
label
I understand the concept of environmental certification
I believe there is a lot that individuals can do to improve the
environment
I believe there is a lot that corporations can do to improve the
environment
Importance of certification (Importance) (Cronbachs alpha = 0.546)
I believe that there is a need for environmental certification of the
harvesting of Indian forests
I believe environmental certification can reduce tropical
deforestation
Involvement in certification (Involvement) (dropped one variable,
Cronbachs alpha = 0.539)
If available, I would seek out environmentally certified clothes
Whenever possible, I buy products which I consider
environmentally safe
Willingness to pay (Cronbachs alpha = 0.818)
I would pay more for environmentally friendly products
I would pay a premium for certified clothing
I am ready to pay more for certified eco-friendly products
association was also carried out between the clusters and demo-
graphic variables to determine the nature of the clusters. To test
H2, the mean WTP more scores were calculated for the different
segments and a one-way ANOVA was conducted to assess whether
the mean score was different for each of the segments. The depen-
dent variable was WTP more score and the independent variables
were the psychographic variables on the basis of which the five
segments or groups had been derived. Post hoc Scheffe test, which
is deemed to be the most conservative method for detecting Type 1
error, was used to identify homogenous subsets of groups of
respondents.
4. Analysis
Cronbachs alpha scores of the different scales suggested that one
variable needed to be dropped in the involvement in certification
scale to have an acceptable score of reliability. For the purpose of
analysis, a suitable modification was therefore made to this scale.
To test H1, hierarchical clustering of EC, importance of certifica-
tion and involvement in certification scores of the respondents was
done with a Euclidean measure of distance using Wards method.
Two-five cluster solutions were checked and it was found that the
three-cluster solution gave the best result as far as interpretability
was concerned. Step-wise multiple discriminant analysis was then
carried out to identify the extent of difference between the three
clusters. It yielded two significant functions. The first discriminant
function explains 0.7532 or 57% of variance. The second discrimi-
nant function explains [(10.57) 0.662] or 19% of variance. Hence
the two discriminant functions together explain 76% of variance.
An examination of the classification function revealed that 95% of
original grouped cases was correctly classified. With leave-one-
International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 438446 The Author
Journal compilation 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Clothing with eco-labels in India
Table 2 Structure matrix
Function
1 2
Involvement 0.705 -0.588
EC 0.478 0.166
Importance 0.576 0.794
Pooled within-groups correlations between discriminating variables and
standardized canonical discriminant functions. Variables ordered by
absolute size of correlation within function.
Table 3 Functions at group centroids
Function
Segment 1 2
1 -7.003E-02 -0.652
2 1.836 1.060
3 -1.986 1.301
Unstandardized canonical discriminant functions evaluated at group
means.
out cross-validation option, 94.8% of the cases was correctly clas-
sified. A combined analysis of the structure matrix and the group
centroids revealed the discriminating features among the three
segments of customers (See Tables 2 and 3).
This together with cross-tabulation with chi-square test of asso-
ciation between the segments and demographic details revealed
the nature of the segments. Chi-square test of association between
demographic variables and the segments showed that community,
gender, religion, education, occupation were associated signifi-
cantly with membership of segments at 0.032, 0.027, 0.020, 0.002,
0.008 levels of significance respectively. However, income and
socio-economic classification were not significantly associated
with membership of the segments at 0.093 and 0.204 levels of
significance respectively. The analysis identified the following
segments:
Segment 1 Light Green Apparel Consumers (64.2%) were
slightly negative on EC and involvement in certification; negative
on importance of certification; more likely to be Bihari; propor-
tionately more males than females (70% males, 30% females).
Segment 2 Dark Green Apparel Consumers (19.8%) were posi-
tive on EC and involvement in certification, positive on importance
of certification; more likely to be Bengali/Gujrati; 42% females
and 58% males, 52% are post-graduate professionals, more likely
to be self-employed professionals.
Segment 3 Non-Green Apparel Consumers (16%) were highly
negative on EC and involvement in certification, positive on
importance of certification; proportionately more males (77%)
than females (23%), proportionately more Muslims and Sikhs in
this segment compared with the other two segments.
Hence, H1 is supported.
To test H2, mean WTP more score was calculated for the dif-
ferent segments and a one-way ANOVA was conducted to judge
whether the mean WTP scores are the same across all three
segments. The dependent variable was the WTP score and the
441
Clothing with eco-labels in India P. Goswami

Table 4 Willingness to pay more across segments negative EC and WTP scores in Segment 3 so that attempts could
be made to change their perceptions.
Segment Mean n SD
It is not easy to increase the purchase of environment-friendly
1 3.49 308 0.764 clothing. This is because clothing does not at all have a stable
2 3.95 95 0.599 perception profile among consumers in the effort (compromise)-
3 3.22 77 0.733 difference (confidence) dimension of Peatties (1999) green
Total 3.54 480 0.763 purchase perception matrix (McDonald and Oates, 2006). This
implies that consumers neither find it easy to make such purchase
nor understand whether it makes a difference to the environment
thereby posing significant problem for marketers wishing to raise
Table 5 ANOVA results with willingness to pay as the dependent sale of such products. In such a difficult situation, eco-labels may
variable
assure the consumers about making the right choice and help
Sum of Mean increase demand for eco-friendly clothing with clear information
squares d.f. square F Sig. communication on labels. Again as pointed out by Shaw and
Clarke (1998), although some issues like environmental destruc-
Between groups 25.053 2 12.526 23.556 0.000
tion are genuinely global in nature, variations in concern exist
Within groups 253.655 477 0.532
between different consumer cultures and the growing ethical con-
Total 278.707 479 cerns among consumers is not a uniform trend (Homma, 1991). To
cite an example, a recent study on Australian consumers found
evidence to suggest that customers expect all products to be
environment-friendly and are less likely to compromise on product
independent variables were the psychographic variables (EC, quality than on the somewhat higher prices of green products thus
Involvement, Importance) on the basis of which the three seg- suggesting that there exists market for higher quality green prod-
ments or groups had been derived. The ANOVA results clearly ucts with premium pricing or products with quality similar to
demonstrated that the mean WTP scores are different for the three competitors at lower prices (DSouza et al., 2007b). In order to
segments as the probability associated with the value of F is 0.000, come up with quality green products at lower prices there is a need
that is, less than the significance level of 0.05 (See Tables 4 and 5). to evolve lower cost-based technology. Again, green consuming
The post hoc conservative Scheffe test results reveal that cannot be viewed in isolation and is related to other ethical issues
homogenous subsets of segments exist for eco-labelled garments. of concern to consumers (Connolly and Shaw, 2006). Ethical
Thus, H2 is supported. consumers have been found to be dissatisfied with the style of
ethically produced clothing garments (Shaw and Tomolillo, 2004)
and are also calling for fashionable ethical products to be available
5. Discussion and conclusions on the High Street so that they are convenient and easy to access,
The results of the study suggest that there are three segments of thus suggesting a potential way forward for ethical manufacturers
consumers of which Segment 2 Dark Green Apparel Consumers to avoid becoming a niche product and instead becoming more
appear ready and willing to adopt eco-labelled clothing. Not sur- mainstream (Shaw et al., 2006). It has also been argued that the
prisingly, Segment 2 also has the highest mean score of 3.95 on a price difference between textiles with and without eco-label in
scale of 5 among the three segments for WTP implying the highest certain cases are almost non-existent, and environment-friendly
WTP more for eco-labelled clothing as an obvious consequence of textiles are therefore not always more expensive (Pedersen and
high EC, and perceived importance and involvement in certifica- Neergaard, 2006). Indian marketers may take cue from this and
tion. They may be reached through media targeting specially self- may develop both high-quality high-price products (for Segment 2
employed and post-graduate professionals and being preferred by Dark Green Apparel Consumers for example) as well as quality
both females (comprising 42% of the sample) and males (com- products comparable to competitors with lower prices (say, for
prising remaining 58% of the sample). The other two segments do Segment 1 Light Green Apparel Consumers in the future) to suit-
not appear to be immediately ready for clothing with eco-labels. ably tap appropriate segments. Again, on comparing the results of
Segment 1 Light Green Apparel Consumers, are slightly negative the current study with the UNCTAD study on German consumers
on EC and Involvement, and comprises a sizable proportion of (UNCTAD Analytical Studies on Trade, Environment and Devel-
64% of the sample and hence if their EC is increased with appro- opment, 1999) it is noted that around 515% of German con-
priate communications targeted at the Hindi-speaking male sumers are deep green and may pay a slightly higher price for
population, there is a possibility of subsequent increase in their environmentally sound goods as compared with around 20% urban
Involvement and Importance score. This would improve their Indians revealed by this study; another 50% of Germans will buy
acceptance of eco-labelled clothing. Since their WTP more for eco-products if it is made easy through clear labelling and are not
eco-labelled clothing is also a moderately high score of 3.49 on a more expensive than alternatives, and this is not directly compa-
scale of 5, this group should be targeted after Segment 2 Dark rable to the Segment 1 Light Green urban Indian apparel consum-
Green Apparel Consumers are targeted and saturated. Segment 3 ers identified in this study as the Indians have moderately high
Non-Green Apparel Consumers should not be targeted as they WTP scores; and around 40% of German consumers will never
would be difficult to convince with highly negative EC and use eco-friendliness as a criteria in their purchasing decision as
Involvement scores and very low WTP score. There is scope against comparable 16% Non-Green Indian apparel consumers.
however, for further research to identify the reasons for the very One might, however, argue that the German study was reported in

442 International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 438446 The Author

Journal compilation 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
P. Goswami
1999 corresponding to the present study in 2007, and hence is not
directly comparable. Pedersen and Neergaard (2006) cautioned
against the overall tendency to draw simplified conclusions about
the green segment and pointed out that while some consumers
might act consistently when it comes to transforming their values
and attitudes into everyday decision making, they are not easy to
identify as a group with stable preferences and for the rest of the
consumers, the willingness to buy environmentally labelled prod-
ucts is complex and affected by a number of internal and external
influences and constraints. However, since Segment 2 Dark Green
Apparel Consumers of our study, which is ready and willing to
adopt eco-labelled clothing, has been clearly profiled and can be
identified and targeted, this group may act as opinion leaders for
the other two groups, notably Segment 1 Light Green Apparel
Consumers in the future.
The limitation of the present study is that metros and non-metro
cities of the southern part of India have not been covered.
Although Mumbai (in west India and deemed to be the financial
capital of the country) and Kolkata (large eastern metro) are metro
cities with a cosmopolitan population, the non-metros in the
sample are in the eastern part of India and consequently southern,
northern or western non-metros are likely to exhibit difference in
consumer behaviour.
In future, studies may be conducted on intergenerational cohorts
in the line of the research conducted by Littrell et al. (2005).
Studies may also be taken up in the future to cover other major
metros like Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Chennai and non-
metros of the western, southern and northern India. The scope for
eco-labelled products in food and beverages is another area where
research needs to be undertaken given that the highest amount of
an estimated 42% of average Indian household consumption is
accounted for by this category (Marketing Whitebook, 2007
2008).
6. Managerial implications
Given Indias rapid GDP growth rate and the highly negative
environmental impact of the countrys textile industry, demand for
eco-labelled clothing may create the necessary consumer pressure
to ensure a cleaner environment. Environmental responsiveness
may tilt opinion in favour of a high-involvement product like
clothing when other factors like quality, price, service etc. of a
product are better than, or equal to, the competition (Pujari and
Wright, 1996). Differentiating a company on an environmental
platform increases the perception of higher quality of products and
also increases consumers WTP premium for such products
(DeCarlo and Barone, 2005). As pressure to go green is increasing,
multinational retail behemoth Marks and Spencer is contemplating
carbon-labelling of its products while Tesco has already started
trial carbon-labelling scheme for some of its products (IGD Retail
Analysis, 2008), with clear indications of the carbon footprint of
the products. Hence, it makes business sense for Indian textile
companies to adopt similar energy conservation strategies. Indeed,
far-sighted companies like ITC in India have already taken steps in
this direction (Singh, 2007). Other companies should follow suit to
attract investors and remain competitive in the global marketplace.
The next logical step could be to introduce eco-labelled clothing
for Indian consumers by targeting Segment 2 Dark Green Apparel
Consumers of our study who may be reached through media
International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 438446 The Author
Journal compilation 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Clothing with eco-labels in India
specially targeting self-employed and post-graduate professionals
and being preferred by both females and males. The implication is
that Segment 2, which offers the highest potential number of con-
sumers interested in adopting eco-labelled clothing and who
possess the highest WTP premium for such products should be
targeted by marketers already producing environment-friendly
clothing for both the domestic as well as the export market. Some
companies like Reliance Industries Ltd. have already started using
such fabric for the home market with their Vimal brand (Mehta,
2008). Such efforts could generate subsequent consumer pull in
the market for more of these products from other manufacturers.
Demand may therefore be generated by consumers for eco-
friendly clothing, forcing manufacturers who are currently not
involved in manufacturing/producing textiles made from eco-
friendly fabrics to reconsider their use as there may be sufficient
market demand for such products.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr Richard Blackburn and Parikshit Goswami of the Green
Chemistry Department of Leeds University, UK, for suggesting
the study. I am grateful to my students Debolina, Shruti, Patrali,
Suman and Pradipta who have helped collect the data for the study.
I would also like to express my gratitude to the two anonymous
referees whose constructive comments have benefited me
immensely.
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Clothing with eco-labels in India P. Goswami

Appendix 1
Demographic details of the sample (in percentages)

Assamese Baniya Bengali Gujrati Jat

Community 3.7 0.2 54.3 2.5 0.4
Bihari Kayastha Malayali Marathi Oriya
13.3 0.2 1.2 0.8 2.7
Marwari Punjabi Rajput Sindhi Tamil
12.7 5.8 0.2 0.4 1.4
Graduate Graduate Professional HSC
Education 20.4 27.4 0.2
Some College but Not Graduate Post-graduate
0.6 17.7
Post-graduate Professional SSC
33.5 0.2
High Medium Low
Income 83.2 15.6 1.2
Male Female
Gender 68.4 31.6
Christian Hindu Jain Muslim Sikh
Religion 0.8 95.2 0.2 1.9 1.9
A1 A2 B1 B2 C
Socio-economic Classification 59.6 35.3 3.1 1.5 0.4
Businessmen with 19 employees Businessmen with 10+ employees
Occupation 3.3 2.9
Businessmen with no employees Clerical Executives (Junior)
5.6 0.4 18.9
Executives (Senior) Industrialists with 19 employees Salesman
20.4 0.2 2.5
Industrialists with 10+ employees Officers (Junior) Shop-owners
0.6 7.7 2.7
Officers (Senior) Petty Traders Self-employed Professionals
16.6 0.6 16.4
Skilled Workers Unskilled Workers
0.6 0.2

Notes:
1. Community-based population data is not available. Pursuant of the policy of the Government of India to discourage community distinction based
on Caste, the 1951 Census of India marked a complete departure from the traditional recording of Race, Tribe or Caste and the only relevant question
on caste or tribe incorporated in the Census Schedule was to enquire if the person enumerated was a member of any Scheduled Caste, or any
Scheduled Tribe or any other Backward class or if he was an Anglo Indian.
Source: http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Data_Products/Library/Indian_perceptive_link/Census_Terms_link/censusterms.html.
2. At the census of 2001, out of the 1028 million Indian population 80.5% of the population have returned themselves as followers of Hindu religion,
13.4% as Muslims or the followers of Islam, 2.3% as Christians, 1.9% as Sikh, 0.80% as Buddhists and 0.4% are Jain. In addition, over 6 million have
reported professing other religions and faiths including tribal religions, different from six main religions.
Source: http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/religion.aspx.
3. Percentage of Indian Urban households by Income class: High = 13, Medium = 66, Low = 21, Percentage of Indian Urban Consumption by Income
class: High = 37, Medium = 55, Low = 7.
Percentage of population in a specific Socio-Economic Classification: A1 = 1.1, A2 = 2, B1 = 2.5, B2 = 2.5, C = 6.2, D = 7.2, E1 = 3.5, E2 = 5.7.
Percentage of Indian Population in a specific Education level: Illiterate = 34, Literate but no formal schooling = 2, Some School = 41, SSC = 15.7, Some
College but not graduate 2.1, Graduate = 3.9, Graduate Professional = 0.4, Post-graduate = 0.8.
Source: Marketing Whitebook 20072008, Businessworld Publication.

446 International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 438446 The Author

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