SESSION 2

FAILURE CONSIDERATIONS ON MAINTENANCE ANO RELlABILlTY

2.1 ORIENTATION
2.1.1 Session Plan
2.1.2 Failure Reduction and Removal - The Maintenance
Program Objective

2.2 FAILURE CHARACTERISTICS

2.2.1 Failure Definitions
2.2.2 Failure Detection
2.2.3 Failures in Simple Items
2.2.4 Failures in Complex Items
2.2.5 Consequences of Failure
2.2.6 Maintenance Program Considerations

2.3 RELlABILlTY
2.3.1 Definition of Reliability
2.3.2 Inherent Reliability

2.4 PROBABILlTY
2.4.1 Probability of Failure
2.4.2 Probability of Survival
2.4.3 Conditional Probability of Failure
2.4.4 Failure Patterns versus Age
2.4.5 Infant Mortality
2.4.6 Useful Life of Constant Failure Rate
2.4.7 Wearout
2.4.8 Reliability Patterns versus Component Age (1 of 2)
2.4.8 Reliability Patterns versus Component Age (2 of 2)

2.5 STATISTICS
2.5.1 Nature of Statistics
2.5.2 Measure of Central Tendency
2.5.3 Measure of Variability
2.5.4 Nature of Statistical Distributions
2.5.5 Descriptive Statistics Examples
2.5.6 Summary
2.1 ORIENTATION
2.1.1 Session Plan

This session should help you understand the nature of failures and the fundamentals
of Reliability. These two form the basis of Air Transport Reliability Programs. The
specific objectives of this session are:

* Examine talure characteristics by discussing tailure definitions,

detection and consequences.

* Describe the Failure Parameters for consideration with special

emphasis on simple and complex items. This includes single and
multiple tailures and their respective consequences on system success.

* Present the formal definition of Reliability, and include the concept of

inherent reliability.

* Introduce the concept of Probability tor tailures. This incJudes the

probability ot an item surviving to a given age without a tailure.
Introduce conditional probability where the probability offailure changes
over the lite of an item.

* Briefly introduce the idea that Statistics is the analysis of measured

data, which is useful in describing the likelihood of failures.
2.1.2 Failure Reduction and Removal - The Maintenance Program Objective

The Maintenance Program Objective is to reduce the failures in an economic way.

This shows the tour primary objectives.

1. SAFE'N ANO OPERATlNG EFFICIENCY are necessary for

successful operation ot any fleet of aircraft. Safety is required
tor the physical survival of the fleet, while operating efficiency is
required tor the economic survival of the fleet.

2. Reduce LOSSES OVER TIME of both safety and reliability.

Safety and Reliability do not remain the same. They will
deteriorate over time unless proper maintenance activity is taken
to restore these values to their original levels.

3. Reduce the FAILURES ON THE AIRCRAFT through proper

preventive maintenance. This helps reduce aborts, delays, and
cancellation of flights.

4. ECONOMIZE on the balance of the cost of the maintenance

program and the cost aborts, delays, and cancellations. this is
required for the total lite of the aircraft.

The best approach to achieving the four objectives is to plan for a maintenance program
that includes al! of the objectives, and properly uses the resources to achieve the goals.
 -

2.2 FAILURE CHARACTERISTICS

2.2.1 Failure Definitions

Since the Maintenance Program is designed to reduce failures, we need to begin by

discussing the definitions of different types of failures.

First, a failure is any unsatisfactory condition. This can be

unsatisfactory now or in the future.

The FUNCTIONAL FAILURE is the inability of an item to meet a

specific performance standard. It no longer is satisfactory. It may have
broken, or just lost capability to meet the standard. It must be
corrected immediately.

A POTENTIAL FAILURE is a detectable condition which shows that a

functional failure is immanent, or should happen very soon.
Maintenance must be done if the functional failure is to be prevented.
The potential failure is detected which alerts maintenance to perform
actions to reduce the probability of a functional failure.
2.2.2 FaiJure Detection

Both functional and potential failures can be classified in terms of their detection. The primary consideration is can the
operating crew detect that a problem has occurred or is about to occur. This will become very important to the decisin
logic to be used to develop the maintenance program that will be discussed later in this course.

The role of the operating crew is very important to faiJure detection. They are in a position to detect a functional
failure. If they can detect a functional failure, they should be able to determine the location and time of the failure.

They should also be able to detect a potential failure before it occurs. To do this they will need to have detection
equipment or measurable data that can be compared against standard criteria. If the recorded data goes outside of the
allowable lirnits, then a potential or functional failure has occurred.

If the operating crew cannot detect a failure condition, then it is termed a hidden function. These hidden functions can
be from two general classes. The first is equipment that normally is not operating, and no one knows whether it is cap-
able of operation until it is activated. An example of this would be the fire suppressant bottles. They remain dormant
until asked to perform a function. Only then is it apparent if they work correctly.

Another category of hidden function is equipment which normally is working but gives no indication of failure that is
recognizable to the operating crew.

Both types of hidden functions have the potential tor safety and economic problems.
.~ J . J ,. .J .. J

Aircraft
..
.. ..,
Maintenance & Reliability
- - -

Seminar/Workshop
- _. _. - - - - p _. ---

2.2.2 FAILURE OETECTION

TO THE OPERATING CREW

EVIOENT
FUNCTION
< > HIOOEN
FUNCTION

CREW MEMBER
/ \ OBSERVER MUST NORMALLY NOT
I \ NORMALLY WORKING
MUST BE ABLE BE ABLE TO OPERATING SO BUT GIVES NO
TO DETECT THE RECOGNIZE: CAPABILITY IS INOICATION OF
FAILURE: - POTENTIAL FAILURE NOT KNOWN FAILURE
- LOCATION - FUNCTIONAL FAILURE

\ /
- TIME

BOTH HAVE POTENTIAL

FOR SAFETY ANO
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
\ Jr-71 _._.7
 '0 .o~_\ _ 0"0' ',

2.2.3 Failures in Simple Items

Simple items have few failure modes. Generally a simple item may have one dominant
failure mode. That is the consideration shown by the graph at the bottom of the chart,

The item begins with an established resistance to failure. This resistance to failure
lowers over time. Eventually the resistance to failure reduces to the threshold of a
potential failure. This is the threshold that if something is not done soon a functional
failure should soon occur.

The lower threshold on the resistance to failure graph is the functional failure. tt no
maintenance was accomplished, then eventually the resistance to failure would decrease
until the item could no longer satisfy the design requirement. It quits working.

Proper maintenance at the desired time resto res the resistance to failure, and the
process can start all over again, with the resistance to failure decreasing once again.

This cycle repeats as long as the item is used on an aircraft.

Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

2.2.3 FAILURES IN SIMPLE ITEMS

SIMPLE ITEMS HAVE FEW FAILURE MODES

-(\ '\ il:\
~
!J
1.....,.../.

RESISTANCE TO FAILURE DECREASES WITH FAILURE

POTENTIAL FAILURE OCCURS WHEN THE RESISTANCE

REACHES A THRESHOLD

FUNCTIONAL FAILURE OCCURS WHEN RESISTANCE

CANNOT SUPPORT THE LOAD

MAINTENANCE AT THE POTENTIAL FAILURE PREVENTS

THE MORE COSTLY FUNCTIONAL FAILURE

Resistance
Resistance
/ to Failure Restored

ntental Eailure, _ ----------

unctonal Ealure, _
 ~>~.:
2.2.4 Failures in Complex Items

Complex items may fail in a variety of ways. Complex items have many failure modes.
Each of the failure modes has a resistance to failure that decreases with age.

The different failure rates are generated by the different failure conditions. Each aircraft
se es different operating conditions, which in turn produce differences in the failure
potential of each item of equipment.

Complex ltems normally have one or more dominant failure modes which produce
the most failures. These dominant failure modes are the primary areas of concern when
developing the maintenance programo

Each failure mode starts with a different resistance to failure, and decreases at a
different rate, giving a different pattern of failure aging.

When items have many failure modes that can produce a tailure, then there are many
possibilities of when and where the failure occurs. The combination of many possibilities
produces a random pattern of when the failure will occur, or a random time to failure.

Items with a high potential for safety problems need a very good opportunity for
detection, or the item should be redesigned. Serious safety related failures should not
be tolerated.
2.2.5 Consequences of Failure

Another important aspect of a failure for the mantenance program ls what happens
when the item fails. This is referred to as the consequences of failure.

If a failure has the potential for producing a safety problem, then this is an item that has
the highest potental failure problem. Safety is considered any injury or loss of
equipment.

If a failure does not cause a safety problem, but has the potential for mpactng aircraft
operations, this is the next level of problem area. Items whch can cause delays and
cancellations fal! into thiscategory.

If a failure does not produce safety of operating problems, then it is considered the
lowest level of failure consequence.

The consequence of the failure should impact the decisions regarding the proper
maintenance program for the aircraft.
2.2.6 Maintenance Program Considerations .

This chart gives an example of how the maintenance program uses the consequences
of failure.

On the left side of the chart we have shown two categories of failures: safety or non-
safety. The top of the chart shows the question of whether or not a maintenance task
exists that would be both applicable and effective.

We will start with the top left corner. If an item has safety potential from a failure, and
a maintenance task is applicable and effective, then the maintenance program should
include a scheduled maintenance activity for the task.

Next we go to the top right. If the item has safety potential, but no task s known to be
applicable and effective, then the item must be redesigned or the risk of failure must be
accepted.

Moving to the bottom left, if the item is non-safety, and a task exists that is applicable
and effective, then it should be scheduled based on economics.

Final/y, at the bottom right, if an item is non-safety, and no task is known to be

applicable and effective, then there should be no inspections for the item in the
maintenance programo

This is the type of logic that is used extensively in developing a complete maintenance
programo
Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

2.2.6 MAINTENANCE PROGRAM CONSIDERAT10NS

1S A MAINTENANCE TASK
CONSEQUENCE APPLICABLE ANO EFFECT1VE?
OF FAILURE
VES NO

SCHEOULED REDESIGN
SAFETY MAINTENANCE OR
REQU1RED ACCEPT RISK

ECONOMIC NO
NON-SAFETY SCHEDULED SCHEDULEO
MAINTENANCE MAINTENANCE
2.3 RELlA81L1TY

2.3.1 Definition of Reliability

A definition of relability would include words like trust or confidence. The common use
of the word is imprecise.

For a maintenance program, RELlA81L1TY has a precise definition.

Al! reliability textbooks have a definition related to the probability of success of a

system or item of equipment to survive without failure tor a specified period ot time
when operated under specified operating conditions.

Reliability is the measure of the probability of something lasting a given period of time
without a failure. Reliability is operating without failure.

The definition must be precise in engineering terms because it may be a contractual

specification for a system, sub-system, or item of equipment.

Reliability often is used to measure or indicate how wel! a system is performing its
intended mission.

Reliability is the measure of success. It measures success for an aircraft, aircraft

component, or a system of aircraft. For this course we will normally use it to represent
successful operation of some item on the aircraft.
2.3.2 Inherent Reliabilitv

Inherent reliability is a special measure of the reliability of the designo No design

is going to be failure free forever. Any design can eventually have failures. Inherent
reliablity is the best reliability a given design can expect. This is the target reliability that
a maintenance program strives to maintain.

An effective maintenance program will measure the reliability, and check on the decline
of reliability with the age of the equipment.

The effective maintenance program will rebuild the reliability through proper maintenance
actions.

The effective maintenance program will perform the maintenance in the most economical
manner possible.

A Maintenance program maintains the inherent reliability, it does not increase the
reliability of the designo
2.4 PROBABILllY
2.4.1 Probability 01 Failure

The prabability scale ranges from zero to one (O- 1.0). this is equivalent of 0% to 100%.

0% would represent something totally impossible. An example could be for an aircraft

to try and fly for ayear without maintenance. That is impossible. that would have a 0%
prabability .

100% would represent something that is absolutely certain to happen. An example

could be for an aircraft to run out of tue!. This is bound te, happen if the aircraft flies
long enough without refueling.

Realistic examples are present for tailures. At the low end of the scale is the possibility
of two engines failing on the same f1ight. This is very low. This is very unlikely to
happen. It is so low most aircraft accept this risk.

At a higher level of prabability is the possibility that your luggage came through on the
flight without being misplaced or damaged. This usually happens, but not always.

Somewhere in between could be the probability that all the passengers on the flight
received their luggage, on time and without damage. This number is lower than for you
as a single passenger.

Since probability is a key word in the definition of reliability, it is important to understand

that probability is the measure of how Iikely something is going to happen.
 Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

PROBABILITY

2.4.1 PROBABILITY OF FAILURE

1.0 Absolutely Certain - Aircraft

Eventually Runs Out of Fuel

Your luggage was on Time

and without Damage

All Passengers Luggage 00 Time

and without Damage
0.5

Two Engines Fail on the Same Flight

Impossible - Aircraft Fly for aYear

0.0 ~== without Maintenance

PROBABILITY MEASURES HOW LIKELY IS SOMETHING TO HAPPEN

2.4.2 Probability of Survival

The probability of survival is an extension of the definition of probability over time. This
is closely related to the definition of reliability.

The graph on this chart shows the probability of survival over time for an aircraft
component.

It begins with a good component, with a probability of survival to at least being

installed of 100%.

This particular component shows a decline in the probability of survival to only 50% by
200 flight hours.

The decline continues until the probability of survival is only about 10% at 750 hours.

A few components last well beyond the 1000 hour point in time.

Looking at the survival curves can help determine if a flight hour limit is required. In
this case no limit is needed, since early failures have been accepted, a few more
failures at the higher end of the life spectrum should not be a problem.
Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

2.4.2 PROBABILITY OF SURVIVAL

1.0

Probability
of
Survival

0.5

0.0 ---t----t-+---+----I--+---+-.....L.-o+--4---+---

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Flight Hours Since Last Overhaul

2.4.3 Conditional Probability of Failure

The probability of failure can change over time. conditional Probability is the term
used to describe this phenomena.

This chart reflects the conditional probability of failure for a fictitious engine. The chart
is designed to show the probability of an engine failure within the next 100 flight hours.

Shown at the bottom of the chart is the time since the last engine overhaul.

This data shows this engine to have a higher probability of failure during the first 500
hours. This could be representative of quality problems from the overhaul.

Once the engine is beyond the initial period, then the probability of an engine failure
remains relativeiy low for a long time.

On the right hand side of the chart can be seen the probability starting to rise. this
could be representative of an engine having accumulated considerable operating time
and cycies, and nearing time to be returned for another overhaul.

The main point on this chart is that the probability of failure may not be constant for all
components of an aircraft.
Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

2.4.3 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY OF FAILURE

0.3

500 1000 15002000250030003500400045005000

Engine Operating Hours Since Last Overhaul

2.4.4 Failure Patterns versus Age.

The conditional probability of failure should be evaluated for all types of items.

This chart shows a conditional probability of failure that is used in most textbooks on
reliability. It ls usually called the "bathtub" curve.

Early in the life of a component, there can be a higher conditional probability failure.
This is usually called infant mortality. This can be associated with latent defects during
the manufacturing process. This is similar to the higher probability of failure following
overhaul for the engine example discussed previously.

After the initial higher failure for infant mortality, there ls frequently a long period of
relatively constant failure rateo This is sometimes called the useful life period, because
during this period it has the lowest failure rate,and is in turn more useful.

On the right hand side of the chart, the probability of failure is on the increase. This is
called the wearout portion of the components life cycle. If a component has safety
implications and is approaching the wearout portion of its life, it probably should be
removed before failure.

This chart emphasizes that the probability of failure does change over time, and
conditional probability should be considered.
Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

2.4.4 FAILURE PATTERNS VERSUS AGE

Infant Useful Life

M ortality at Constant Wearout
Failure Rate

-=~
o
.....
...c
. ...c
"'O

U
=o
Age ofltem Since New
 2.4.5 Jnfant Mortality

Infant mortality is usually associated with a very high probability of failure.

There are many reasons for the increased failure rates. Defects can occur for a variety
of reasons. They can be associated with the materials the item is constructed. The
defects could be related to the assembly process. Defects can be present because of
faulty designo Defects can occur from rough handling in the transportation process.
They can also happen from improper storage. Maintenance can introduce defects by
, improper installaton.

When infant mortality s found, the elimnation of the cause of the defects is usually very
inexpensive compared to the benefits. The cost of the improvement is normally
considerably less than the cost to fix the defects after they happen.

Infant mortality should be corrected.

2.4.6 Useful Life of Constant Failure Rate

This applies to many complex items. The numerous failure patterns make the time to
failure appear approximately random in time.

This is useful because for a long period the failure rate remains constant. This is good
to predict the number of failures in the fleet. This is very good to help determine the
number of spare items which will be required during a specified periodo The workload
is very predictable.

This is normally the lowest failure rate for the item, and it should approach the inherent
failure rate of the designo
2.4.7 Wearout

Wearout is at the end of the life of the component where the conditional probabilfty
of failure starts increasing with age.

This increase in probability of failure is due to losing the resistance to failure over time.
This is normally caused by a physical change from age and wear of the item, or for
some items there may be a chemical change. An example of a chemical change is a
battery. It physically looks the same, but inside there has been some form of a chemical
change.

The maintenance plan should consider the wearout, but this does not mean that a
removal policy is always cost effective. For items which do not have significant effects
it they fail, early removal only wastes available lite.
2.4.8 Component Age Versus Reliability Patterns (1 of 2)

This s the first of two charts showing the conditional probability of aircraft ttems. These
charts were first presented in a book Reliability Centered Maintenance by Nolan and
Heap. The left side of the chart shows the percentage of ttems that exhibit each
general class of conditional probability.

Notice at the top is the "bathtub" curve. Only four percent (4%) exhibit this tendency.

Only two pereent (2%) exhibit the gradual, followed by wearout. This was primarily
reciprocating engines still in use at the time of the study for the book.

Five pereent (5%) of ttems show a gradual increase in failure rate wtthout a
distinguishable increase of a wearout. This is indicative of turbines.

NOTE: Only eleven percent (11%) of components exhibtt an inereasing failure rateo
 Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Serninar/Workshop

2.4.8 RELIABILITY PATTERNS VERSUS COMPONENT AGE el of 21

THE BATHTUB CURVE: INFANT MOR-

TALITY, FOLLOWED FIRST BY A CON-
STANT OR GRADUALLY INCREASING
FAILURE PROBABILITY AND THEN BY
A PRONOUNCED uWEAROUT" REGION.
4% AN AGE LIMIT MAY BE DESlRABLE,
PROVIDED A LARGE NUMBER OF UNITS
SURVIVE TO THE AGE AT WHICH
WEAROUT BEGINS.

CONSTANT OR GRADUALLY INCREASING

FAILURE PROBABILITY, FOLLOWED BY
A PRONOUNCED WEAROUT REGION.
2% ONCE AGAIN, AN AGE LIMIT MAY BE
DESlRABLE (THIS CURVE IS CHARAC-
TERISTIC OF A/C RECIP. ENGINES).

GRADUALLY INCREASING FAILURE

PROBABILITY,BUT WITH NO IDENTIF-
IABLE WEAROUT AGE. IT IS USUALLY
5% NOT DESlRABLE TO IMPOSE AN AGE
- LIMIT IN SUCH CASES {THIS CURVE
IS CHARACTERISTIC OF A/C/TURBINE
ENGINE~} .

11% MIGHT BENEFIT FROM A LIMIT ON OPERATING AGE

2.4.9 Component Age Versus Reliability Patterns (2 o, 2)

The three graphs shown here represent those components that do not have an increase
in the failure rate with age.

At the top is how items with a low failure pattern when new, levels off to the constant
failure rateo Seven percent (7%) of the items exhibit this pattern.

In the middle are the items that show a constant failure rate for their entire lives. They
do not seem to have an infant mortality or a wearout. Fourteen percent (14%) of the
items show this tendency.

At the bottom are the items that have an infant mortality followed by a long period of
constant failure rateo Notiee that 68 percent (68%) of the items have this failure rate
pattern.

AII eighty-nine pereent (89%) of the times show no pattern of wearout. They would not
be helped by any form or a planned removal programo
 Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

2.4.9 RELIABILITY PATTERNS VERSUS COMPONENT AGE (2 of 21

LOW FA1LURE PROBAB1LITY WHEN THE

7% 1TEM 1S NEW OR JUST OUT OF THE
SHOP. FOLLOWED BY A QU1CK IN-
CREASE TO A CONSTANT LEVEL.

14
%

CONSTANT PROBAB1L1TY OF FA1LURE

AT ALL AGES (EXPONENTIAL SUR-
VIVAL DISTR1BUTION).

1NFANT MORTALITY. FOLLOWED BY A

68 CONSTANT OR VERY SLOWLY INCREAS-
% ING FAILURE PROBABILITY (PARTIC-
ULARLY APPLICABLE TO ELECTRONIC
EQUIPMENT).

89% CANNOT BENEFIT FROM A LIMIT ON OPERATING AGE

2.5 STATISTICS
2.5.1 Nature of Statistics

Statistics is the mathematical tools to analyze measured data.

The actual quality that is being measured has variability. The readings
change over time or tor other reasons.

No measurement is perfecto There is variability in the equipment that

takes the measurement. This is another source of variability in the
recorded data.

A third source of variability is the recording of the data. An example

would be a manually recorded number. There is always the possibility
that the numbers were transposed or contained some other recording
error.

When data ls required tor decisions purposes, tt is frequently too expensive or takes too
long for data collection of the entire population of interest. A sample is selected, and
data is obtained on the sample. Statistics is used to predict the parameters of the
population trom the recorded parameters from the sample.
2.5.2 Measure of Central Tendency

AII types of data have an average value. Knowing the average failure rate or the
average time to repair a failure is important to people who plan the maintenance
activities.

The mathematical name given to the average value is the mean. The chart shows this
s computed by adding all the numerical values and dividing by the number of values.
The Greek letter Mu, J.L, is normally used to represent the average value of the
population.
 Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

2.5.2 MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

AlL GROUPS HAVE SOME AVERAGE VALUE

THIS AVERAGE IS TERMED THE MATHEMATICAL MEAN.

THE GREEK LETTER MU, ~, REPRESENTS THE MEAN

THE SUM OF ALL READINGS

~ = THE AVERAGE - ---------
THE NUMBER OF READINGS

THE MEAN OF A SAMPLE REPRESENTS THE MEAN

OF A POPULATION
2.5.3 Measure of Variability

There are several ways to measure the variability in a collection of data points.

The first is to select the maximum and minimum values. These give the limits of where
the data should reside.

The range is related to the maximum and minimum values, it is the difference in the two
readings. The range of data furnishes the possible dispersion of the data.

Both of these first two categores of data only use the extreme points.

The variance is a widely used measure that uses all the data points. It is more
complicated to calculate, but fortunately many calculators and most computer programs
have the capability to perform the calculations with little knowledge from the operator.

The standard deviation is the square root of the variance, and is the most widely used
measure of variability.

The Greek letter Sigma, a, is normally used to represent the standard deviation.
2.5.4 Nature of Statistical Distributions

Ths shows a dstrbuton of data with the mean and the standard deviaton.

The mean s the average value which appears in the center of the mound shaped
portion of the curve.

Unes are shown on each sde of the mean to represent plus and minus one standard
devation from the mean.

On the left is shown where 5 standard deviations before the mean would be. This
could be for a significant structural Jtern, and the lite limit would be established to
remove or rework the item before there is any real chance of a failure.
 Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

2.5.4 NATURE OF STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTIONS

lIFE lIMIT 50 MEAN a~a

~ ~.
------... /
i I
I
F -01+0
A ,...
I PROBABIlITY
L DISTRIBUTION
U
R
E
S

CYClES (TIME SINCE NEW) -

x = TEST POINTS
2.5.5 Descriptive Statistics Examples

This chart shows several ways to represent data.

At the top left is a bar chart which is called a histogram. The number of failures is
plotted for selected intervals of time. The data shown has an average value close to the
highest point.

At the top right is the same data represented by a frequency distribution. This is the
values of the histogram divided by the total number of failures. It represents the
probability of a failure within each of the specified time intervals.

At the bottom left is shown the probability of survival. This is for the same data. Notice
there is very little chance of an early failure, and most of the components survive for a
good periodo

At the right is complement to the probability of survival, it is the cumulative probability

of failure.

AII of these presentations represent a different "picture" of the same data.

 Aircraft Maintenance & Reliability Seminar/Workshop

2.5.5 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS EXAMPLES

Frequency
Histogram Distribution

-.- -.-
c..-.
o

.-.---
.....

Time or Age
Time or Age

-~
.:: .-.-.o-
;> ,.Q
l..
~
=
o:
,.Q
o
l..
~
o ~

--=
.o .-
QJ

.-.--
,.Q
;>
~
~
,.Q
o
E
~
l..
U=

Time or Age
Time or Age
2.5.6 Surnrnary

This session has discussed failures and failure consequences. An aircraft maintenance
program should be designed to reduce the impact of the failures on the safety and
operating efficiency of the f1eet. It should a1so help the economics of the aircraft by
doing the proper maintenance at the proper time, and not wasting maintenance by
doing more than is required or doing it more often.

You should now understand the difference between a potential failure and a functional
failure.

We have defined reliability as the probability of success of a system to operate without

failure, when operated within specified conditions.

Statistics must be used to analyze the data collected on the maintenance and reliability
of the aircraft.

The maintenance does not improve the inherent level of reliability, it returns the reliability
to the level before deterioration of the resistance to failure.

In future lessons we will discuss how to determine the best maintenance programo