In mathematics, a dynamical system is a system in which a function describes the time

dependence of a point in a geometrical space. The evolution rule of the dynamical system is a
function that describes what future states follow from the current state.
The concept of a dynamical system has its origins in Newtonian mechanics. There, as in other
natural sciences and engineering disciplines, the evolution rule of dynamical systems is an
implicit relation that gives the state of the system for only a short time into the future. (The
relation is either a differential equation, difference equation or other time scale.) To determine the
state for all future times requires iterating the relation many timeseach advancing time a small
step. The iteration procedure is referred to as solving the system or integrating the system. If the
system can be solved, given an initial point it is possible to determine all its future positions, a
collection of points known as a trajectory or orbit.
Before the advent of computers, finding an orbit required sophisticated mathematical techniques
and could be accomplished only for a small class of dynamical systems. Numerical methods
implemented on electronic computing machines have simplified the task of determining the orbits
of a dynamical system.
For simple dynamical systems, knowing the trajectory is often sufficient, but most dynamical
systems are too complicated to be understood in terms of individual trajectories. The difficulties
arise because:

Aleksandr Lyapunov developed many important approximation methods. His methods, which he
developed in 1899, make it possible to define the stability of sets of ordinary differential
equations. He created the modern theory of the stability of a dynamic system.
In 1913, George David Birkhoff proved Poincar's "Last Geometric Theorem", a special case of
the three-body problem, a result that made him world-famous. In 1927, he published
his Dynamical SystemsBirkhoff's most durable result has been his 1931 discovery of what is now
called the ergodic theorem. Combining insights from physics on the ergodic
hypothesis with measure theory, this theorem solved, at least in principle, a fundamental problem
of statistical mechanics. The ergodic theorem has also had repercussions for dynamics.
Stephen Smale made significant advances as well. His first contribution is the Smale
horseshoe that jumpstarted significant research in dynamical systems. He also outlined a
research program carried out by many others.
Oleksandr Mykolaiovych Sharkovsky developed Sharkovsky's theorem on the periods of discrete
dynamical systems in 1964. One of the implications of the theorem is that if a discrete dynamical
system on the real line has a periodic point of period 3, then it must have periodic points of every
other period.

Dynamical systems is the branch of mathematics devoted to the study of systems

governed by a consistent set of laws over time such as difference and differential
equations. The emphasis of dynamical systems is the understanding of geometrical
properties of trajectories and long term behaviour.
Theory of dynamical systems studies processes which are evolving in time. The description of these
processes is given in terms of difference or differential equations, or iterations of maps. Example
(Fibonacci sequence, 1202) bk+1 = bk + bk1, k = 1, 2, . . . ; b0 = 0, b1 = 1.

H.Poincare is a founder of the modern theory of dynamical systems.

Definition of dynamical system includes three components: I phase space (also called state space), I
time, I law of evolution. Rather general (but not the most general) definition for these components is
as follows. I. Phase space is a set whose elements (called points) present possible states of the
system at any moment of time. (In our course phase space will usually be a smooth finite-
dimensional manifold.) II. Time can be either discrete, whose set of values is the set of integer
numbers Z, or continuous, whose set of values is the set of real numbers R. III. Law of evolution is
the rule which allows us, if we know the state of the system at some moment of time, to determine
the state of the system at any other moment of time. (The existence of this law is equivalent to the
assumption that our process is deterministic in the past and in the future.) It is assumed that the law
of evolution itself does not depend on time, i.e for any values t, t0 the result of the evolution during
the time t starting from the moment of time t0 does not depend on t0.

The terms discrete and continuous refer to variables that describe the process.

A continuous variable is one where the value the variable can take on is any real number on a
specified interval. In other words the variable can always take on a value between any two values
in the interval. For example the liquid level in a tank is a continuous variable. While it cannot be
negative it can be any real number greater than or equal to zero and less than or equal to the
capacity of the tank.

A discrete variable can only take on specific values that represent a subset of the real
numbers and it is always possible to find invalid values for the variable between any two valid
values. For example the number of people in a line is discrete since you cannot have half a
person so values like 2.5 are not allowed. There may still an infinite number of choices since the
line could be infinitly long but those choices are limited to positive integers.

A dynamic process is one where some aspect of the process changes over time. In this case time
may be a discrete or continuous variable. In a microprocessor system things only happen at the
edges of clock signals so time is discrete. When calculating the position of a ship this can be done
at any time so the time variable is continuous.

A discrete dynamic process could be one or more of the following depending on how the term
discrete is interpreted.
1. A process where the variables that describe the process and the time variable are discrete, such
as a microcomputer system where things only happen at clock ticks and all the signals are either
ones or zeros with no analog values
2. A process where all the variables are continuous but time is discrete such as a digital control
system that only samples variables and sends actuator commands at discrete times but the values
sampled and sent are continuous.
3. A process where time is continuous but one or more variable describing the system is discrete
such as a manufacturing line where the number of items waiting to be processed at a particular
station is a discrete integer but the time to process an item could be any positive real number.

A continuous dynamic process is usually one where time is continuous and all the variables that
describe the system state are continuous. The process of a satellite orbiting the earth is
continuous both for time and space variables.

a continuous time system is the one in which the inputs and outputs are defined for all values of
time rather than just for discrete values of time. Since time itself is inherently continuous, all
physical systems are actually continuous-time systems.

However, there are situations in which one is interested solely in what happens at certain discrete
instants of time. In many of these cases, the system contains a digital computer, which is
performing certain specified computations and producing its answers at discrete time instants. If
no change (in input or output) takes place between instants, then system analysis is simplified by
considering the system to be discrete-time and having a mathematical model that is a difference
equation.

Continuous control systems are real, they cant be realized with computers. Traditional
pneumatic control systems are continuous control systems.

Discrete Control Systems consider the process values in two ways- Discretized amplitude of
signal and Discretized time scale. So basically, if you see its graph, it has steps on X (time) and Y
(amplitude) both axes, whereas continuous signal will have smooth curve.

Discrete cs are easier to implement with electronics and computer. They are slow, but realizable.
Some C like programming can be used to sequence the actions.

Before proceeding to more detailed consideration of methods for solving the

equations corresponding to the mathematical models of systems, it is essential to
define more precisely some of the terms used in describing and specifying the
systems. To this end it is useful to consider a very general mathematical model that
encompasses a wide range of systems. Such a model for a system having an input x
(t) and output y (t) is
an(t)dnydtn+an1(t)dn1ydtn1++a1(t)dydt+ao(t)y=bm(t)dmxdtm+bm1(t)dm1xdtm1++b1(
t)dxdt+bo(t)x(1)an(t)dnydtn+an1(t)dn1ydtn1++a1(t)dydt+ao(t)y=(1)bm(t)dmxdtm+bm
1(t)dm1xdtm1++b1(t)dxdt+bo(t)x

The mathematical model given above expresses the behavior of the system in terms
of a single nth-order differential equation.
Order of the system
The differential equation (1) is of the nth order since this is the highest-order
derivative of the response to appear. The corresponding system is said to be nth
order also.
Causal and non-causal systems
A causal system is one whose present response does not depend on future values
of the input.
A non-causal system is one for which this condition is not assumed. Non-causal
systems do not exist in the real world but can be approximated by the use of time
delay, and they frequently occur in system analysis problems.
Linear and Non-Linear Systems
The system equation (1) represents a linear system , since all derivatives of the
excitation (input) and response are raised to the first power only, and since there are
no products of derivatives. One of the most important consequences of linearity is
that superposition applies. In fact, this may be used as a definition of linearity.
Specifically, if
y1(t)=system response to x1(t)y1(t)=system response to x1(t)
y2(t)=system response to x2(t)y2(t)=system response to x2(t)
And if
ay1(t)+by2(t)=system response to ax1(t)+bx2(t)ay1(t)+by2(t)=system response to
ax1(t)+bx2(t)
For all a, b, x1(t), and x2(t), then the system is linear. If this is not true, then the
system is not linear.
In the case of nonlinear systems, it is not possible to write a general differential
equation of finite order that can be used as the mathematical model for all systems.
This is because there are many different ways in which nonlinearities can arise, and
they cannot be all described mathematically in the same form. It is also important to
remember that superposition does not apply in nonlinear systems.
A linear system usually results if none of the components in the system changes its
characteristics as a function of the magnitude of the excitation (input) applied to it. In
the case of an electrical system, this means that resistors, inductors, and capacitors
do not change their values as the voltages across them or the currents through them
change.
Fixed and Time-Varying Systems
Equation (1), as written, represents a time-varying system since the coefficients ai(t)
and bj(t) are indicated as being functions of time. The analysis of time-varying
devices is difficult since differential equations with non-constant coefficients cannot
be solved except in special cases. The systems of greatest concern for the present
discussion are characterized by a differential equation having constant coefficients.
Such a system is known as fixed, time-invariant or stationary.
Fixed systems usually result when the physical components in the system, and the
configuration in which they are connected, do not change with time. Most systems
that are not exposed to a changing environment can be considered fixed unless they
have been deliberately designed to be time-varying.
Time-varying system results when any of its components, or their manner of
connection, do change with time. In many cases, this change is a result of
environmental conditions.
Lumped and Distributed parameter Systems
Equation (1) represents a lumped-parameter system by virtue of being an ordinary
differential equation. The implication of this designation is that the physical size of
the system is of no concern since excitations (inputs) propagate through the system
instantaneously. The assumption is usually valid if the largest physical dimension of
the system is small compared with the wavelength of the highest significant
frequency considered.
A distributed-parameter system is represented by a partial differential equation and
generally has dimensions that are not small compared with the shortest wavelength
of interest. Transmission lines, waveguides, antennas, and microwave tubes are
typical examples of distributed-parameter electrical systems.
Continuous-time and Discrete-time Systems
Equation (1) represents a continuous time system by the virtue of being a differential
equation rather than a difference equation. That is, the inputs and outputs are
defined for all values of time rather than just for discrete values of time. Since time
itself is inherently continuous, all physical systems are actually continuous-time
systems.
However, there are situations in which one is interested solely in what happens at
certain discrete instants of time. In many of these cases, the system contains a
digital computer, which is performing certain specified computations and producing
its answers at discrete time instants. If no change (in input or output) takes place
between instants, then system analysis is simplified by considering the system to be
discrete-time and having a mathematical model that is a difference equation.
Instantaneous and dynamic systems
An instantaneous is one in which the response at time t1 depends only upon the
excitation (input) at time t1 and not upon any future or past values of the excitation.
This may also be called a zero-memory or memoryless system. A typical example is
aresistance network or nonlinear device without energy storage.
If the response does depend on past values of the excitation (input), then the system
is said to be dynamic and to have memory. Any system that contains at least two
different types of elements, one of which can store energy, is dynamic.

You are probably talking about discrete and continuous probability distributions.

A discrete distribution is appropriate when the variable can only take on a fixed number of
values. E.g. if you roll a normal die, you can get 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. You cannot get 1.2 or 0.1. If it is
a fair die, the probability distribution will be

1/6, 1/6, 1/6, 1/6, 1/6, 1/6

A continuous distribution is appropriate when the variable can take on (at least in theory) an
infinite number of values. You can weigh 150.2311 pounds or 192.1012 pounds.

Continuous distributions cannot be written so neatly as the uniform discrete distribution, above.
E.g. weight in most populations is close to normally distributed. The function for the normal
distribution is this scary looking thing:

where sigma is the standard deviation, mu is the mean, and e and pi are their usual.

Interestingly, the probability of any exact value in a continuous distribution is 0.

Dynamical systems are mathematical objects used to model physical phenomena

whose state (or instantaneous description) changes over time. These models are
used in financial and economic forecasting, environmental modeling, medical
diagnosis, industrial equipment diagnosis, and a host of other applications.
For the most part, applications fall into three broad categories: predictive (also
referred to as generative), in which the objective is to predict future states of the
system from observations of the past and present states of the system, diagnostic,
in which the objective is to infer what possible past states of the system might have
led to the present state of the system (or observations leading up to the present
state), and, finally, applications in which the objective is neither to predict the
future nor explain the past but rather to provide a theory for the physical
phenomena. These three categories correspond roughly to the need to predict,
explain, and understand physical phenomena.

As an example of the latter, a scientist might offer a theory for a particular

chemical reaction in terms of a set of differential equations involving temperature,
pressure, and amounts of compounds. The scientist's theory might be used to
predict the outcome of an experiment or explain the results of a reaction, but from
the scientist's point of view the set of equations is the object of primary interest as
it provides a particular sort of insight into the physical phenomena.

Predictive and diagnostic reasoning are often described in terms of causes and
effects. Prediction is reasoning forward in time from causes to effects. Diagnosis is
reasoning backward from effects to causes. In the case of medical diagnosis, the
effects correspond to observed symptoms (also called findings) and the causes
correspond to diseases.

Not all physical phenomena can be easily predicted or diagnosed. Some

phenomena appear to be highly stochastic in the sense that the evolution of the
system state appears to be governed by influences similar to those governing the
role of dice or the decay of radioactive material. Other phenomena may be
deterministic but the equations governing their behavior are so complicated or so
critically dependent on accurate observations of the state that accurate long-term
observations are practically impossible.

Often the function is deterministic, that is, for a given time interval only one future state follows
from the current state.[1][2] However, some systems are stochastic, in that random events also
affect the evolution of the state variables.

The scope of this paper is robust stability of uncertain discrete-time systems with polytopic convex
uncertainty domain. It is shown how to expand the discrete Lyapunov condition for stability analysis
by introducing a new matrix variable. The new extended matrix inequality is linear with respect to
the variable, in fact a linear matrix inequality (LMI), and does not involve any product of the
Lyapunov matrix and the system dynamic matrix. This enables us to derive a su
cient condition for robust stability which encompasses the basic quadratic results and provides a
new way for practical determination of parameter-dependent Lyapunov functions by solving LMI
problems. We claim that due to the above decoupling between the Lyapunov matrix and the system
dynamic matrix this condition may be of use in the solution of many di
cult control synthesis problems. This fact is illustrated by the simple state feedback robust
stabilizability control problem. Of course, such a discrete-time condition is of some use for
continuous-time systems when considering the pole location in a disk. Considering a disk tangent to
the imaginary axis at the origin with a large radius would, certainly, result in a quite accurate robust
stability condition in the continuous time domain

Discrete-time systems with state delay have strong background in

engineering applications, among which network based control has been

well recognized to be a typical example. If the delay is constant, one

can transform a delayed system into a delay-free one by using state

augmentation techniques. In this way, stability of such systems can be

readily tested by employing classical results on stability analysis. Such

an approach, however, is not always implementable as the dimension of

the augmented system increases with the delay size. That is, when the

delay is large, the augmented system will become much complex and

thus difficult to analyze and synthesize. Moreover, the state augmentation technique is usually
not applicable to the time-varying delay case,

which is more frequently encountered than the constant delay case in

practice. The reason is that for time-varying delay systems, the transformed systems usually have
time-varying matrix coefficients, which

are apparently difficult to analyze using available tools. Consequently,

much effort has been made towards investigating the stability of discrete time-delay systems via
Lyapunov approaches [5][7], [18]. However, it is worth mentioning that most of the results are
concerned with

the constant delay case, and according to the best of the authors knowledge, little progress has
been reported for the stability analysis of discrete-time systems with time-varying state delay,
which motivates the

present study.

In control system design, stability analysis is the most essential and fundamental problem on time-
delay systems. The stability analysis of discrete-time systems with either time-invariant or
time-varying delays have been an interested research area in recent years, since it has a
strong background in engineering applications than continuous-time systems. However,
there are only few efforts had been taken to investigate stability of DTDSs.
A discrete event system is a dynamic system with discrete states the transitions of which are
triggered by events. This provides a general framework for many man-made systems where the
system dynamics not only follow physical laws but also the man-made rules. It is difficult to
describe the dynamics of these systems using closed-form expressions. In many cases simulation is
the only faithful way to describe the system dynamics and for performance evaluation. It is the
focus of this TC to promote the research on performance analysis, evaluation, and optimization of
discrete event systems. The interested topics include but do not limit to: