This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts

for publication in the WCNC 2009 proceedings.

Effect of a Cochannel Interferer on an Automatic

Frequency Control Loop in Fading Channels
Amin Emad, Student Member, IEEE, and Norman C. Beaulieu, Fellow, IEEE
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Email: aemad@ece.ualberta.ca, beaulieu@ece.ualberta.ca

AbstractThe mean time to loss of lock and the average Input

switching rate of an automatic frequency control loop operating
in fading in the presence of a single interferer are derived.
Closed-form expressions and integral form formulas are derived
for the general case of modulated carriers as well as important
special cases of similar modulations and unmodulated carriers.
The general results include, as special cases, some previous
more restricted results. Fading channels are assumed to be
independent non-identically distributed (i.n.d.) with Rayleigh,
Rician and Nakagami-m distributions while the special case
of independent identically distributed (i.i.d.) channels is also
considered. Corresponding numerical examples are provided and
discussed to illustrate the results.
I. I NTRODUCTION
An automatic frequency control (AFC) loop is used in
various digital systems to control the frequency of a received
signal. It is used in both coherent receivers, as an acquisition
aid for a phase-locked loop (PLL), and noncoherent receivers,
as a necessary part of the system [1]. In the simplest form, an
AFC consists of a frequency difference detector (FDD), a loop
lter and a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) as shown in
Fig. 1. The FDD generates an error voltage, which after pass-
ing through the loop lter, drives the frequency of the VCO
towards the frequency of the received signals carrier. When
the local frequency of the VCO equals the carrier frequency of
the received signal, the error voltage is equal to zero and the
system remains in steady state. In practice, these steps may be
implemented digitally, since digital implementation of AFC is
often more stable and reliable; however, if the sampling rate
is sufciently high to avoid aliasing, the analog and digital
models will be similar [2].
The performance of an AFC in an interference-free noisy
environment has been previously investigated in the literature.
In references [2]-[5], the tracking performance of an AFC is
studied using the variance of the frequency error and in [6] and
[7], the probability of loss of lock caused as a result of noise
has been investigated. However in practice, several signals may
be present simultaneously at the input of an AFC as a result
of the multiuser nature of wireless channels. These signals
may be transmitted from different sources and therefore can
be assumed to be independent, or they may be replicas of
the same signal transmitted to achieve diversity. The behavior
of an AFC in the presence of a single cochannel interferer
has been described in [8] and it has been shown that the
Frequency
Loop
Difference
Signal
Detector
Filter
Voltage
Controlled
Oscillator
Fig. 1. The block diagram of an automatic frequency control loop.
AFC will lock on the signal with the largest instantaneous
amplitude. Since the amplitudes of the received signals depend
on various factors such as modulation and fading, the AFC
may lose its tracking lock on the desired signal and lock on the
interference signal instead. The occurrence of these switches
can deteriorate the performance of the AFC signicantly. One
measure that can quantify this effect is the average switching
rate (ASR). The ASR shows how often a jump occurs from
the desired signal to the interferer and vice versa. Another
parameter that can be used to characterize the performance
of an AFC is the mean time to loss of lock (MTLL). This
parameter gives the average time that an AFC remains locked
on the desired signal and is a measure of the reliability time
of the AFCs output.
In reference [9], the ASR and the MTLL of an AFC loop
with two received signals both subject to Rayleigh fading have
been derived. Meanwhile, wireless systems often operate in
fading that is not Rayleigh distributed. For example, many
real world channels are better modeled by the Rician and
Nakagami-m fading models. Furthermore, results were derived
in [9] only for the case of unmodulated carriers. In this paper,
we derive the ASR and the MTLL of an AFC in Rayleigh,
Rician and Nakagami fading channels. Our analysis applies to
modulated carriers as well as unmodulated carriers.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In
Section II, the system and channel models are described. In
Sections III and IV, the method of analysis is described to
nd the ASR and the MTLL, respectively and nal results
are presented. In Section V, some numerical examples are
provided to demonstrate the effect of the interference on the
performance of an AFC in different fading scenarios. Finally,
Section VI summarizes the results.

978-1-4244-2948-6/09/$25.00 2009 IEEE

This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2009 proceedings.

II. S YSTEM AND C HANNEL M ODELS III. AVERAGE S WITCHING R ATE

The system considered in this paper consists of two received
signals at the input of an AFC. These signals are modeled as
xi (t) = si (t)Ai (t) cos (i t + i (t) + i (t)) i = 1, 2 (1)
where si (t) is the transmitted data, i (t) is its phase and i
denotes the carrier angular frequency; in this model, Ai (t) is
a random process which depends on the channel statistics and
represents the effect of fading and i (t) is its phase and is
modeled as an uniformly distributed random process in [0, 2).
The branches are assumed to be independent such that A1
and A2 are independent as well as their time derivatives, A1
and A2 . The fading in the transmission channels, A1 and A2 ,
are both considered to follow either the Rayleigh, Rician or
Nakagami distribution. The joint statistics of Ai and Ai depend
on the power spectral density (PSD) and the moments of the
received signals [10]. These moments are dened as
 fi +fm
i
bin = (2)n (f fi )n Wi (f )df, i = 1, 2 (2)
fi fmi
where fi is the carrier frequency, fmi is the maximum Doppler
frequency and Wi (f ) is the PSD of the ith unmodulated
received signal. If Wi (f ) is symmetric around the carrier
frequency, Ai and Ai are independent [10]-[12]. In a Rayleigh
fading channel, the joint probability density function (JPDF)
of Ai and Ai is
   
i 2 1 i2
fAi ,Ai (i , i ) = 2 exp i2  exp (3a)
i 2i 2 i2 2i2
where
i2 = bi0
i2 = bi2 .
It has been shown in [8] that if the difference between carrier
frequencies of the received signals is much smaller than the
carrier frequencies and also, the modulations of these signals
are slow compared to the carriers frequency difference, the
AFC locks on the signal with the larger amplitude. Considering
these conditions, one can nd the ASR and the MTLL of
an AFC in fading channels using the relative statistics of the
received signals. In [9], the average switching rate of an AFC
has been found for unmodulated received signals in Rayleigh
fading by evaluating the level crossing rate of the ratio of the
signals envelopes. Our investigations indicate that this method
does not yield tractable solutions for many cases of Rician and
Nakagami fading, but is still useful for Rayleigh fading with
modulated carriers (see Appendix A).
The average switching rate can also be found using the
random process Z = s1 A1 s2 A2 as the following argument
shows. When Z > 0, the desired signals amplitude, s1 A1 , is
larger than the interference signals amplitude, s2 A2 . Corre-
spondingly, when Z < 0, s2 A2 is larger than s1 A1 and the
faded interference signal dominates the faded desired signal.
The average switching rate, N , is then the average rate of level
crossings (positive going plus negative going) through Z = 0,
NZ (0). One has [15]

N = NZ (0) = |z| fZ,Z (0, z)dz (6)
where fZ,Z (z, z) is the JPDF of Z and its time derivative, Z.
Using the denition of conditional probability, fZ,Z (z, z) =
fZ|Z (z|z)fZ (z), one has
(3b) 
(3c) N = fZ (0) |z|fZ|Z (z|0)dz. (7)

In the case that Ai is corrupted by Rician fading, The conditional probability density function fZ|Z(z|z) in (7)
    can be found using the theorem of total probability [16, Ch.
i i2 + 2i i i
fAi ,Ai (i , i ) = 2 exp I0 4],
i 2i2 i2 
 
1 i2 fZ|Z (z|0) = fZ|A2 ,Z (z|2 , 0)fA2 |Z (2 |0)d2 . (8)
 exp 2 (4)
2 i2 2i 0
One can easily show that
where I0 () is the zero-order modied Bessel function of the  
rst kind [13], 2i is the power in the line-of-sight (LOS) com- Z = s1 A1 s2 A2 + A2
s1 s2
s2 +Z
s1
. (9)
ponent and i2 and i2 are dened in (3b) and (3c) for i = 1, 2, s1 s1
respectively. In the case that Ai is Nakagami distributed with
It can be seen in eqs. (3)-(5) that Ai has a Gaussian distribution
Nakagami fading parameter, mi , where mi = ni /2 and ni is
and is independent of Ai . Therefore if Z and A2 are given in
an integer, one has [14]
  (9), Z is equal to the summation of two scaled independent
i 2mi 1
2mmi i mi i2 Gaussian random processes and a constant. Consequently,
fAi ,Ai (i , i ) = exp

2
(mi )(2i2 )mi 2i2
  z s1 s2
s
1 i2 1 2 s1 2
 exp 2 . (5a) fZ|A2 ,Z (z|2 ,0) = exp (10a)
2 i2 2i 2 2
where
bi2 where
i2 = (5b) = s21 12 + s22 22 . (10b)
mi
1
and i2 is dened in (3b). Using A2 = s1
s2 A1 s2 Z and the fundamental transformation
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TABLE I
theorem [16, Ch. 5], one can derive T HE AVERAGE SWITCHING RATE OF AN AFC IN FADING
 
s2 s2
fA2 |Z (2 |0) = fA1 2 . (11) System
s1 s1 Fading Average Switching Rate
Model
In order to nd the average switching rate, one still needs to
nd fZ (0). Using the transformation i.i.d.
Rayleigh s =s
1 2=1 2

Z = s1 A1 s2 A2 i.n.d. 12 22 (22 +12 )
Rayleigh s =s =1 (22 +12 )3/2
Y = s2 A2 , 1 2

i.n.d. k2 12 22 (22 +k2 12 )
one can obtain Rayleigh s = ks (22 +k2 12 )3/2
    1 2

1 y y d (d d +d2 )
fZ (0) = fA fA2 dy. (12) Rayleigh i.n.d. M d 3(d 1d 3d22)2
y=0 s1 s2 1 s1 s2 1 1 3 2

i.i.d 2
2

Consequently, the ASR can be found using (7)-(12). Rician s =s =1 exp 2 2 F2 12 , 32 ; 1, 1; 2

2
1 2
In the special case that the transmitted data in the received  2 2 2 2

 2 1 k +2 2 2
signals are replicas of each other, i.e. s1 (t) = ks2 (t) where k i.n.d. t exp t 212 222
0 2s22 k2 12 22 1 2
is a constant, Rician 2 2 2

  2(2 +k 1 ) t
1 z 2 s1 = ks2 s3 k2 2 2 I0 2 ks 1 t
I0 22s2 dt
fZ|Z (z|0) = exp (13)  2
2

1 2 1 2 2

2 2 t2 +221 s21 t2 +22 s22
0
t exp 2 2 2 2
and therefore 21 s
1 2
2 s2
  2  s4 14 2I0 21st1 I0 22st2 dt
1 1 2 
1 z 2  1 s1 s2 22
N = fZ (0) |z| exp dz = fZ (0) (14) Rician i.n.d.  z2 s s2 2 2
2 2 0 exp 2(s2 2 +s 1
2 2 )
s
2s22 22
2 2 1 1 1 1
where fZ (0) can be obtained using (12).

|z|2
Table I gives the ASR of an AFC in different scenarios. The s
I0 2s1 2 2 1 d2 dz
2(s22 22 +s21 12 ) 1
derivations are given in Appendices A, B and C for Rayleigh, i.i.d.  (2m 1
)
m 2
Rician and Nakagami fading, respectively. Note that when the Nakagami s =s =1 b0 22(m1) 2 (m)
1 2
signals experience i.n.d. fading and s1 = s2 = 1,
m1
m2
2Rayleigh i.n.d.
2(m1 +m2 12 )
m1 m2
1 22 (22 +12 ) (m1 )(m2 ) 1 k2 2 22
the ASR equals N = (2 +2 )3/2 which is the same as the
2 1 Nakagami
m1m2+12 
result previously reported in [9], as expected. s1 = ks2 m 22 +k 2 12
2 2 + 2
1 m2
1k
IV. M EAN T IME TO L OSS OF L OCK
2
1

m2 2 2
m1
2(2m1 )(m1 +m2 2 ) m2 s2 m1

2 (m1 )(m2 ) 22 s22 2s41 14
The MTLL of an AFC, T , can be obtained using [17]
(m 1
1 +m2 2 )

2F Nakagami i.n.d. m2 s12 + m2 s22

1 1

T = (15)  2
2 2
2 2
N |z|exp 4 2 z D2m1 z dz

where N is the ASR of the AFC and F is the probability that
the amplitude of the desired signal is larger than the amplitude
of the interferer. It can be shown that unmodulated carriers where s1 = s2 = 1. Moreover, the
      maximum Doppler frequency of each branch is assumed to
t tr t
F = fA1 fA2 dtdr. (16) be the same, i.e. fm1 = fm2 = fm . Fig. 2. shows the average
r=1 t=0 s1 s2 s1 s2
switching rate of an AFC (normalized to fm ) versus the
Table II gives the results of the MTLL for different system signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) in a Rician fading channel for
models. The proofs are described in Appendices A, B and C 2
different Rice factors dened as Ki = 2i2 . The SIR is the ratio
i
for Rayleigh, Rician and Nakagami fading, respectively. Note of the desired signals average power to the interfering signals

that in the special case of i.n.d. Rayleigh fading

 and unmodu-
lated carriers, the MTLL is equal to T = 2
agrees with the result previously reported in [9].
V. N UMERICAL E XAMPLES
In the numerical examples, we focus on the important
special case of two-dimensional (2-D) isotropic scattering
and an omnidirectional receiving antenna. It is shown in
[11] that i2 = 2 2 fm
2
2 for i = 1, 2 where fmi is the
i i
maximum Doppler frequency. In these examples, we consider
2
average power given as SIR = 10 log10 12 1+K 1+K2
1
for
12 (22 +12 ) 2
22 (22 +12 )
which Rician fading. Note that the special case when K1 = K2 = 0
is equivalent to the Rayleigh fading scenario. As can be seen
in this gure, if the desired signal and the interferer have equal
Rice factors, the worst case (maximum average switching rate)
happens when the signals have equal powers. However, if
the Rice factor of the desired signal is larger than the Rice
factor of the interfering signal, the maximum of the average
switching rate moves to smaller values of SIR. Fig. 3. shows
similar results for Nakagami fading and different values of
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TABLE II 10
1

T HE MEAN TIME TO LOSS OF LOCK OF AN AFC IN FADING

System
Fading Mean Time to Loss of Lock 10
0

Model
i.i.d.
Rayleigh s =s 2

Average Switching Rate

1 2=1
i.n.d. 
2 ( 2 + 2 )
1
10
Rayleigh s =s =1 2 12 (22 +12 )
1 2 2 2 1

i.n.d. 
2 ( 2 +k2 2 )
Rayleigh s = ks 2 12 (22 +k2 12 )
1 2
2
2 2 1 10

2s21 12 d (d d d22 )2 K1=0, K2=0
Rayleigh i.n.d. 2 2 2 2
1 1 3 K1=1, K2=0
(s1 1 +s2 2 )M d3 (d1 d3 +d22 ) K1=3, K2=1

  3  2 2      K1=5, K2=0

t r exp t2 (r +1) K1=5, K2=5

i.i.d.
1 0 2 I0 tr t
2 I0 2 dtdr
10
3

25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Rician 
1 SIR (dB)
2
Fig. 2. The average switching rates of an AFC (normalized to fm ) in a
s1=s2=1 43 2 F2 12 , 32 ; 1, 1; 2 Rician fading scenario for different values of K1 and K2 .
  x3 r  2 2
 1
1
exp 2s 2 k2 + 2
x r 10

r=1 x=0 s2 2
2
1
2
i.n.d. 2 222 1/2 I0 xr 2
1
I0 x 2
2
dxdr
(2 +k 1 ) 1 ks2 2 s2
Rician  2 2 2 2
10
0

t (k + )
s1 = ks2 0 t2 exp 2s2 k212 22

2 1 2

1
Average Switching Rate

1 t 2 t
I0 2 ks2 I0 2 s2 dt
1 2
 2 2

1
10
  3
r=1 t=0
t r exp t2 r2 s2 + 21s2

2
1 1

2 2

2 s1 tr1 t2
21 s2 2I0 2 s1 I0 2 s2 dtdr
 21 2

10
2

0 t2 exp t2 21s2 + 21s2 m1=1, m2=1

1
1 2 2
m1=3, m2=1
2 m1=5, m2=1
Rician i.n.d. exp 212 I0 2 ks 1t
I 0
2 t
2 dt m1=3, m2=3
1   1 2 2 2 s2  3
m1=5, m2=5


10
s1 s2
zx s s2 x2 s2
25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25

0 exp 2
1
2s2 22 SIR (dB)

1 1 Fig. 3. The average switching rates of an AFC (normalized to fm ) in a

1 Nakagami fading scenario for different values of m1 and m2 .
|z|dzI0 ss21x 2
1
xdx
1
that the MTLL of the AFC increases for the same values of
i.i.d. (2m)22m1
Nakagami s =s =1 F (2m, m; m+1; 1)
m3/2 (2m 12 ) 2 1 SIR. The same conclusion holds for larger values of m1 in Fig.
1 2
2 2
m1 +m2 5, where the MTLL (multiplied by fm ) in Nakagami fading
(m1 +m2 ) 1 k
i.n.d. 1
m2 (m1 +m2 2 ) m1 is shown. Comparing Figs. 4 and 5, one can see that for large

m1+m212 values of SIR, the MTLL curve increases more sharply in a
Nakagami m 2 2 + 2
1 m2
(22 +k 2 12 )1
k
1 2
Nakagami fading scenario than in a Rician fading scenario.
k2 m 2
s1 = ks2 2 F1 m1 +m2 , m2 ; m2 +1; m1 2 2 1
VI. C ONCLUSION
 2

21


2 2
|z|exp 42 z D2m1 z
dz

In this paper, the average switching rate and the mean

m1 +m2 12 2 2
m2 time to loss of lock of an AFC were derived for different
s1 1
2 s2 + 2 s2
m1 m2
m1 fading channels. Both modulated and unmodulated carriers
Nakagami i.n.d.
1 1 2 2

s2 m 2 were investigated. In the case of Rayleigh fading channels,

2 F1 m1 +m2 , m2 ; m2 +1; s12 m21 12 a closed-form expression was derived for the general case of
4 4 2
m1 2
(m1 +m2 )(m1 ) 2s1 1
(2m )(m +m )m 1 s2 m2
modulated carriers and independent non-identically distributed
1 1 2 2 2 2 1
(i.n.d.) channels. Moreover, special cases were investigated
2
and compared to the previous results in the literature when

m1 and m2 . In this case, SIR = 10 log10 12 . Note that applicable. A new analytical approach was employed to derive
2
m1 = m2 = 1 is equivalent to the Rayleigh fading scenario. simple integral form formulas for the ASR and the MTLL
Fig. 4. shows the MTLL of an AFC multiplied by fm for of an AFC in Rician and Nakagami-m fading channels and
Rician fading. It can be seen that if the channel of the desired closed-form expressions were derived for important special
signal is modeled by larger values of K1 , i.e. stronger LOS cases. Furthermore, numerical examples were provided to
component, the performance of the AFC improves in the sense compare the performances of an AFC in different scenarios.
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3
10
K1=0, K2=0 branches are independent, B1 is independent of B2 and B1 is
K1=1, K2=0
K1=3, K2=1 independent of B2 . As a result,
K1=5, K2=0
K1=5, K2=5
fB1 ,B1 ,B2 ,B2(1 , 1 , 2 , 2 ) = fB1 ,B1(1 , 1 )fB2 ,B2(2 , 2 ).
2
10

Using this JPDF and by employing the transformation

Mean Time to Loss of Lock

1
10
B1 = B2 R
B1 = B2 R + B2 R,
0
10

one can nd fR,R (1, r) after some lengthy manipulations,

1 3 d3
10
fR,R (1, r) = 2 2 2 2 (19a)
2s1 s2 1 2 (d3 r2 + 2d2 r + d1 )5/2
where
 
2
10

(s2 s1 s1 s2 )2
25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25
SIR (dB) 1 1
Fig. 4. The mean time to loss of lock of an AFC, multiplied by the maximum d1 = + 2 2+ 2 2 2 2 (19b)
Doppler frequency, in a Rician fading scenario for different values of K1 and
2 2
1 s1 2 s2 s1 s2 (s2 2 + s21 12 )
K2 . s2 s1 s1 s2
d2 = (19c)
s1 s2 (s22 22 + s21 12 )
3
10
m1=1, m2=1
m1=3, m2=1
m1=5, m2=1
1
m1=3, m2=3
d3 = . (19d)
s22 22 + s21 12
2 m1=5, m2=5
10
Mean time to loss of lock

10
1
Consequently using eqs. (17)-(19),

d3 (d1 d3 + d22 )
N = NR (1) = M (20a)
10
0
d1 (d1 d3 d22 )2
if 
10
1 |d2 | < d1 d3 (20b)
where
1
M= (20c)
s21 s22 12 22
2
10
25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25
SIR (dB)

Fig. 5. The mean time to loss of lock of an AFC, multiplied by the maximum and [18, (3.252.7)] has been used. Evaluating the condition in
Doppler frequency, in a Nakagami fading scenario for different values of m1 (20b) requires knowledge of s1 (t) and s2 (t), however, in the
and m2 .
special case that the data in the interferer is a replica of the data
in the desired signal with different power, i.e. s1 (t) = ks2 (t),
A PPENDIX A
d2 equals zero and therefore the condition in (20b) is clearly
R AYLEIGH FADING
satised. In this case,
When the channels of the desired and interference signals 
k 2 12 22 (22 + k 2 12 )
are both subject to Rayleigh fading (pure scattering), using N= . (21)
R = ss12 A (22 + k 2 12 )3/2
A2 instead of Z = s1 A1 s2 A2 leads to simpler
1

expressions. Therefore, we prefer to use R in this scenario

while using Z in Rician and Nakagami fading scenarios. Using (16) and [18, (3.461.3)], one can nd
Similar to (6), one has   2 2
 2r r 1 s21 12
N = NR (1) = |r| fR,R (1, r)dr. F= 2 2 2 2 s2 2 + dr = . (22)
(17) 1 s1 s2 1 2 1 1 s22 22 s21 12 + s22 22

As a result, the MTLL of an AFC in this scenario is equal to
If Bi represents the signals amplitudes, i.e. Bi = si Ai , for
i = 1, 2, one can easily show that 2s21 12 d (d d d22 )2
  T = 2 2 2 2
1 1 3 . (23)
i i2 (s1 1 + s2 2 )M d3 (d1 d3 + d22 )
fBi ,Bi (i , i ) = 2 2 exp 2 2 (18)
i si 2i si It is worth mentioning that if s1 and s2 are replicas of each
 
1 (si i si i )2 other with different powers, i.e. s1 (t) = ks2 (t), one has
exp . 
2 i si 2i2 s4i 12 (22 + k 2 12 )
T =2 . (24)
Note that Bi and Bi are not independent. However since the 22 (22 + k 2 12 )
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 2
A PPENDIX B 2 m1 s2
= + 2 (28c)
R ICIAN FADING 1 s1
In this case, one can nd the ASR using (7)-(12), s2
= s1 s2 (28d)
    s1
s22 fZ (0) s2 2 1
N = 2 2 |z| 2 I0 (25a) and where Dp () is the parabolic cylinder function [18] and
s1 1 2 2 =0 s1 12

2 [18, (3.462.1)] and [18, (3.381.11)] are used. In the special

z 2
s1 s2
s 1
s 2 22 s22 + 21 s21 case that s1 (t) = ks2 (t), the ASR is equal to (14) where
exp d2 dz, fZ (0) is given in (28b).
2(s22 22 + s21 12 ) 2s21 12
After some manipulations and using [18, (3.194.2)] one
obtains
where using (12)  2 m2
  2  (m1 + m2 ) s1 m2 12
1 t + 21 s21 t2 + 22 s22 F = (29)
fZ (0) = 2 2 2 2 2
t exp m2 (m1 )(m2 ) s22 m1 22
s1 s2 1 2 0 212 s21 222 s22  
    s2 m2 12
1 t 2 t 2 F1 m1 + m2 , m2 ; m2 + 1; 12 .
I0 I0 dt. (25b) s2 m1 22
12 s1 22 s2
Consequently, the MTLL can be found using (15).
The average switching rate in (25) can be evaluated numer-
ically, however, further simplications can be utilized to nd a R EFERENCES
closed-form expression. If s1 and s2 are replicas of each other [1] H. Meyr and G. Ascheid, Synchronization in Digital Communications,
with different powers, i.e. s1 (t) = ks2 (t), the ASR is equal to Vol. I, New York: Wiley, 1990.
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