Early and medieval age

Main articles: Indo-Greek Kingdom, Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic

Civilization, Sikh Empire, and Mughal Empire

Standing Buddha from Gandhara

Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas
encompassing present-day Pakistan.[52] The earliest known inhabitants in the region
were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in
the Soan Valley of Punjab.[53] The Indus region, which covers most of present day
Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic
Mehrgarh[54] and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation (28001800 BC) at
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.[55][56]

The Vedic Civilization (1500500 BC), characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the
foundations of Hinduism, which would become well established in the region.[57][58]
Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre.[59] The Vedic civilisation
flourished in the ancient Gandhran city of Takail, now Taxila in Punjab.[54]
Successive ancient empires and kingdoms ruled the region: the Persian Achaemenid
Empire around 519 BC), Alexander the Great's empire in 326 BC[60] and the Maurya
Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka the Great until
185 BC.[54] The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180165
BC) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander
(165150 BC), prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region.[54][61] Taxila
had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world.[62]
[63][64][65]

The Rai Dynasty (489632 AD) of Sindh, at its zenith, ruled this region and the
surrounding territories.[66] The Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire that under
Dharampala and Devapala stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh
through Northern India to Pakistan.

The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Indus valley from Sindh to
Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD.[67][68][69][70][71] The Pakistan
government's official chronology identifies this as the point where the "foundation" of
Pakistan was laid.[67][72][73] The Early Medieval period (6421219 AD) witnessed
the spread of Islam in the region. During this period, Sufi missionaries played a
pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to
Islam.[74] These developments set the stage for the rule of several successive Muslim
empires in the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (9751187 AD), the Ghorid
Kingdom and the Delhi Sultanate (12061526 AD). The Lodi dynasty, the last of the
Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (15261857 AD). The Mughals
introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian
culture in the region.[75] From the region of modern day Pakistan, key cities during
the Mughal rule were Lahore and Thatta,[76] both of which were chosen to house
immensely beautiful Mughal buildings.[77] In the early 16th century, the region
remained under the Mughal Empire ruled by Muslim emperors.[78] By the early 18th
century, the increasing European influence slowly disintegrated the empire as the lines
between commercial and political dominance were increasingly blurred.[78]

Edwin Lord Weeks illustration of an open-air restaurant near Wazir

Khan Mosque, Lahore.

During this time, the English East India Company had established coastal outposts.
[78] Control over the seas, greater resources, technology, and military force projection
by East India Company of British Empire led it to increasingly flex its military
muscle; a factor that was crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the
subcontinent by 1765 and sidelining the European competitors.[79] Expanding access
beyond Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it
to annexe or subdue most of region by the 1820s.[78] To many historians, this marked
the starting of region's colonial period.[78] By this time, with its economic power
severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of
British administration, the Company began to more consciously enter non-economic
arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.[78] Such reforms included the
enforcement of English Education Act in 1835 and the introduction of the Indian Civil
Service (ICS).[80] Traditional madrasahs primary institutions of higher learning for
Muslims in the subcontinent were no longer supported by the English Crown, and
nearly all of the madrasahs lost their financial endowment.[81]

Colonial period

Main articles: Pakistan Movement, Aligarh Movement, and British Raj

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (181798), whose vision formed the basis of
Pakistan

Muhammad Ali Jinnah (18761948) served as Pakistan's first

Governor-General and the leader of the Pakistan Movement

The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 18th century enabled the Sikh
Empire's influence to control larger areas until the British East-India Company gained
ascendancy over the Indian subcontinent.[82] The rebellion in 1857 (or Sepoy
mutiny) was the region's major armed struggle against the British Empire and Queen
Victoria.[83] Divergence in the relationship between Hinduism and Islam created a
major rift in British India; thus instigating racially motivated religious violence in
India.[84] The language controversy further escalated the tensions between Hindus
and Muslims.[85] The Hindu renaissance witnessed an awakening of intellectualism
in traditional Hinduism and saw the emergence of more assertive influence in the
social and political spheres in British India.[86][87] An intellectual movement to
counter the Hindu renaissance was led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who helped to found
the All-India Muslim League in 1901 and envisioned as well as advocated for the
two-nation theory.[82] In contrast to the Indian Congress's anti-British efforts, the
Muslim League was a pro-British whose political program inherited the British values
that would shape Pakistan's future civil society.[88][89] In events during World War I,
British Intelligence foiled an anti-English conspiracy involving the nexus of Congress
and the German Empire.[90] The largely non-violent independence struggle led by the
Indian Congress engaged millions of protesters in mass campaigns of civil
disobedience in the 1920s and 1930s against the British Empire.[91][92][93]
Over 10 million people were uprooted from their homeland and
travelled on foot, bullock carts and trains to their promised new
home during the Partition of India. During the partition between
200,000 to 2,000,000 people were killed in the retributive genocide.
[94]

The Muslim League slowly rose to mass popularity in the 1930s amid fears of under-
representation and neglect of Muslims in politics. In his presidential address of 29
December 1930, Allama Iqbal called for "the amalgamation of North-West Muslim-
majority Indian states" consisting of Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and
Baluchistan.[95] Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, greatly espoused the
two-nation theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940,
popularly known as the Pakistan Resolution.[82] In World War II, Jinnah and British
educated founding fathers in the Muslim League supported the United Kingdom's war
efforts, countering opposition against it whilst working towards Sir Syed's vision.[96]

The 1946 elections had resulted in the Muslim League winning 90 percent of the seats
reserved for Muslims. Thus the 1946 election was effectively a plebiscite where the
Indian Muslims were to vote on the creation of Pakistan; a plebiscite which the
Muslim League won.[97] This victory was assisted by the support given to the
Muslim League by the rural peasantry of Bengal as well as the support of the
landowners of Sindh and Punjab. The Congress, which initially denied the Muslim
League's claim of being the sole representative of Indian Muslims, was now forced to
recognise that the Muslim League represented Indian Muslims.[97] The British had
no alternative except to take Jinnah's views into account as he had emerged as the sole
spokesperson of India's Muslims. However, the British did not desire India to be
partitioned and in one last effort to avoid it they arranged the Cabinet Mission plan.
[98]

As the cabinet mission failed, the British government announced its intention to end
the British Raj in India in 194647.[99] Nationalists in British India including
Jawaharlal Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad of Congress, Jinnah of Muslim League, and
Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhsagreed to the proposed terms of transfer of
power and independence in June 1947 with the Viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatten of
Burma.[100] As the United Kingdom agreed upon partitioning of India in 1947, the
modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27th of Ramadan in
1366 of the Islamic Calendar) in amalgamating the Muslim-majority eastern and
northwestern regions of British India.[93] It comprised the provinces of Balochistan,
East Bengal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab and Sindh; thus forming
Pakistan.[82][100]
In the riots which preceded the partition in the Punjab Province, it is believed that
between 200,000 and 2,000,000[101][102][103][104][105][106] people were killed in
the retributive genocide between the religions [107][108] while 50,000 Musllim
women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men and 33,000 Hindu and Sikh
women also experienced the same fate at the hands of Muslims.[109][110][111][112]
Around 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million
Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India.[113] It was the largest mass
migration in human history.[114][115][116] Dispute over Jammu and Kashmir led to
the First Kashmir War in 1948.[117][118]