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What/Whycontrolthedewpoint?
Theprocessfromathermodynamicviewpoint
Equipment
Binaryexample
Multi-componentexample
DistillationColumns
What/Whycontrolthedewpoint?
T T Thedewpointisthetemperatureatwhich
vapour thefirstdropsofcondensateformwhen
coolingamulticomponentmixtureofgases
dew
point
Thebubblepointisthetemperatureatwhich
thefirstvapourisformedwhenheatinga
liquid-vapour multi-componentmixtureofliquids
bubble
point Attemperaturesbetweenthebubbleanddew
liquid pointsatwophasemixtureofliquidand
composition vapourisformed
Inpipelinesdesignedexclusivelyforgases,coolingwilloccurasthegasflowsdownthepipe.
Ifthevapourtemperaturefallsbelowthedewpoint,thenliquidslugsareformedwhichcan
damagethepipeline.
Thedewpointofagasmixtureischangedtoensurethisdoesnothappen.
Controllingthedewpointisawayofcontrollingthecompositionofthegasmixture
Theprocessfromathermodynamicviewpoint
T starting point T
Theprocesscanbeexaminedusing
cooling aT-xydiagram,generatedfrom
thermodynamicdata/experiments.
dew point
Thegasmixtureisnormallyabove
specified dew itsdewpointandiscooleduntilit
separation
point reachesthedesireddewpointand
avapour-liquidmixtureisproduced.
Ifthismixtureisleftforlong
enough(5mins.max.)thenthe
liquidandvapourphaseswillbein
liquid vapour
composition composition equilibrium.
composition
Theseparationproducesliquidandvapourphasesinequilibrium.
Thedewpointofthevapourphaseisnowatthespecifiedvalue.
Theprocessfromathermodynamicviewpoint
T T
Feed
Theboilingrangeisthe
differencebetweenthe
dewpointandthebubble
boiling point.
range
specified dew
point
composition
Iftheboilingrangeislargethendewpointcontrolcanbeachievedinonestep
Theprocessfromathermodynamicviewpoint
T T
separation
heating
cooling
specified dew
point
composition
Iftheboilingrangeisnarrowthenmanystagesarerequired.
Thevapourfromeachstageiscooledandtheliquidfromeachstageisheated
Equipment
Ifdewpointcontrolcanbeachievedinasinglestagethenallthatisrequiredisa
coolerandaseparationvessel.
vapour
HEAT
EXCHANGER
SEPARATOR
Feed
coolingfluid
liquid
Equipment
vapour
product
C C C
C S S S S
liquid H H H
product
Whenmorestagesarerequired,anumberofheatexchangersandseparatorscanbeplacedinaline.
Ifmorethan4stagesarerequired,thenamorecosteffectivewayistoarrangethestagesina
column.
Theheating,coolingandseparationthentakeplaceononedistillationstage(plateortray).
vapour Equipment
product
liquid
Feed
vapour
Thevapourpassingontothenextstage,iscooled
byheatingtheliquidonthenextstage.
Onestagecombinestheheattransferandseparation
liquidproduct dutiesoftheheater,coolerandseparationelements
ofasimpledewpointcontrolplant
BinaryExample
Afeedatapressureof10barcontaining30mol%etheneand70mol%propaneistohave
itsdewpointreducedby13degreesKelvin.Thetemperatureofthefeedstreamis300Kand
theflowrateis0.1kgs-1.
UsetheT-xydiagramandthedatabelowtocalculate
(i) Thecompositionofthestreamsleavingaftertheseparation.
(ii) Thevapourandliquidflowrates.
(iii) Theheatloadonthecooler
Data
Liquid specific heat capacities
Ethene: CP , L=3078Jkg-1K-1 Propane: CP , L=2479Jkg-1K-1
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
liquid or vapour mole% of ethene
BinaryExample
310
300
290
280
270 A B C
260
250
240
230
220
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
liquid or vapour mole%
ForbinarysystemswecanusetheLeverruletofindthevapourfraction.
AB
vapour fraction, f =
AC
Bymeasuringthedistancesonthediagramwecanfindthevapourfraction
2.8 cm
f= = 0.38
7.4 cm
BinaryExample
UsinginformationfromtheT-xydiagram
vapourcomposition-56%ethene,44%propane
liquidcomposition-13%ethene,87%propane
massflowofvapour=0.38x0.1=0.038kgs-1
massflowofliquid=(1-0.38)x0.1=0.062kgs-1
Theheatbalanceistakenoverthecoolerandtheseparator.Usingtheinletstreamisat300Kandthis
istakenasthedatum.Therearetwooutletstreams;thevapourat275Kandtheliquidat275K.
Theenthalpyofanyidealliquidorvapourstreamisgivenby
2
H = yi H i
i=1
Fortheindividualcomponents,theenthalpiesinthevapourandliquidaregivenby
275 275
H i,vap = H 10
i ,300 + CpdT H i,liq = H 10
i,300 + CpdT - DH V
300 300
BinaryExample
Sincethedatumisat300Kand10bar,theenthalpyiniszero.
Vapour
275
Ethene Enthalpy= 0 - 1503dT = 1503[ 275 - 300] = -37575 J kg -1
300
275
Propane Enthalpy= 0 - 1628dT = 1628[ 275 - 300] = -40700 J kg -1
300
.
H mix = m y i H i = 0.038(0.56 -37575 + 0.44 -40700) = -1480.1 J s -1
Liquid
275
Ethene Enthalpy= 0 - 1503dT - 391700 = 1503[ 275 - 300] = -429275 J kg -1
300
275
Propane Enthalpy= 0 - 1628dT = 1628[ 275 - 300] - 259700 = -300400 J kg -1
300
.
H mix = m y i H i = 0.062(0.13 -429275 + 0.87 -300400) = -19664 J s -1
BinaryExample
2
Enthalpy Balance
H1=H2+H3+Q
0=-1480.1+-19664+Q
Q=21144.1Js-1 OR 21.1kW
Multi-componentExample
Afeedmixturewhosecompositionisgivenbelowistohaveitsdewpointreducedby20degrees
Kelvininasinglestageoperation.Thetemperatureandpressureofthefeedare340Kand500
kParespectivelyandthefeedflowrateis1.5kgs-1.
Calculatethefollowing
(i)Theamountofliquidandvapourproduced.
(ii)Thecompositionoftheliquidandvapourstreams
Feed Composition
Component Mole%
Ethane 10.0
Propane 15.0
Propene 8.0
Butane 20.0
Butene 12.0
Pentane 25.0
Pentene 10.0
Multi-componentExample
Formulti-componentmixtures,wecannotplottheT-xychartbecausewedonothave
enoughdimensions.
Insteadwehavetocalculatethebubbleanddewpointsforthemixture.
Weuseaniterativeprocedurebasedonamassbalanceoverthecombinedcoolerand
separator.
Vapour
flowrate=V
composition=yi
Feed
flowrate=F
vapourfractionf=V/F
composition=yF
cooler
Liquid
boundary for
mass balance flowrate=L
composition=xi
Multi-componentExample
Overallmassbalance
L
F = L+V dividingbyFleadsto = 1- f
F
Componentmassbalance
Fy F = Lxi + Vy i dividingbyF y F = (1- f)x i + fy i
Theliquidandvapourproductstreamsareinequilibriumsowecanwritethat
y i = K ix i whereKi istheequilibriumconstant
Replacingyiinthecomponentmassbalance
y F = (1- f)x i + fK i xi
Rearrangingforxi leadsto
xF
xi =
1 + f (K i - 1)
Wecanwriteequationsliketheoneaboveforeachcomponent.Ifwecalculateliquidstreamcompositions
usingthecorrectvalueoffthentheyshouldallsumtoone.
Thisisthebasisofaniterativeproceduretofindf.
Multi-componentExample
Weneedtodefinethebubbleanddewpointsofthismixture.
Foramulticomponentmixtureitisimpossibletoplotthedata,insteadweuseaniterativeprocedure
basedontheequilibriumatthebubbleanddewpoints.
Atequilibriumbetweenanidealgasvapourphaseandanidealsolutionliquidwecanwrite
x i Pisat = y i P
xi-molefractionofcomponentiintheliquid yi-molefractionofcomponentiinthevapour
Pi s a t-vapour(saturation)pressureofliquid P-systempressure.
Pi s a tisknownasafunctionoftemperatureformostofthehydrocarbonscommonlyencountered.
Itispossibletoarrangetheequilibriumconditiontofindtheequilibriumconstant,Ki,foreach
component.
y i Pisat
Ki = =
xi P
BubbleandDewPoints
Bubble Point(feedcompositionusedasliquidcomposition)
Fromtheconditionforequilibrium
x i Pisat
yi =
P
Thesumofallthemolefractionsinthevapourphasemustbeone.
N
1 N N
y i = P x i Pisat = 1 fi x i Pisat = P
i=1 i=1 i=1
sincethevapourpressureisafunctionoftemperatureonly,weadjustthetemperatureuntilthiscondition
issatisfied.Thetemperatureatwhichthisisoccursisthebubblepoint.
Thevapourpressureisgivenbyequationsoftheform
a2
ln Pi sat = a1 + + a3 ln T + a 4 T a5
T
sowecannotsolvethisproblemanalytically,butinsteadhavetouseiterationonaspreadsheetfor
example.
BubbleandDewPoints
Dew Point(feedcompositionusedasvapourcomposition)
Fromtheconditionforequilibrium
yi P
xi =
Pisat
Thesumofallthemolefractionsintheliquidphasemustbeone
N N
yi 1
x i = P sat
=1 fi N
=P
i=1 i=1 Pi y
sati
i=1 Pi
Thevapourpressureisafunctionoftemperatureonlysoweadjustthetemperatureuntilthisequationis
satisfied.Thisisthedewpoint.
Thisisaniterativeprocedure,thatiscarriedoutonaspreadsheet.
IterationforBubblePoint
A B C D E F G H I
1 Pressure 500000
2
4 Guess T 200
5
17 sum 27655.9
Changetheguesstemperatureuntilthesumisequaltothetotalpressure(500000Pa)
IterationforBubblePoint
A B C D E F G H I
1 Pressure 500000
2
4 Guess T 281.19332
5
17 sum 500000.0
Thebubblepointofthismixtureis281.2K
IterationforDewPoint
A B C D E F G H I
1 Pressure 500000
2
4 Guess T 335.63316
5
17 1 / sum 500000.0
Thedewpointis335.6K
Sincewewanttoreducethedewpointby20K,thedewpointofthemixturewillbe315.6K
Iterationforthevapourfraction
Thetemperatureafterthecoolerisnowknowntobe315.6K.
WecancalculatethevapourpressuresforallthecomponentsandhencecalculateKiforeach
componentfrom;
Pi sat
Ki =
P
Usingtheformulafromthemassbalance
xF
xi =
1 + f (K i - 1)
wecancalculatethemolefractionofeachcomponentintheliquidleavingtheseparatorforsome
guessedvalueoff.
Changethevalueoffuntil
N
xi = 1
i=1
Iterationforthevapourfraction
A B C D E F G
1 Pressure(Pa) 500000 bubble point = 281.2 K
2 dew point = 335.6 K
3
Vapour pressure calculated using Pvp = exp(A+B/T+ClnT+DT^E)
4 Component A B C D E
5 Ethane 51.857 -2598.7 -5.128 1.4913e-5 2
6 Propane 59.078 -3492.6 -6.067 1.0919e-5 2
7 Propene 57.263 -3382.4 -5.771 1.0431e-5 2
8 Butane 66.343 -4363.2 -7.046 9.4509e-6 2
9 Butene 68.490 -4350.2 -7.412 1.0503e-5 2
10 Pentane 78.741 -5420.3 -8.825 9.6171e-6 2
11 Pentene 120.150 -6192.4 -16.597 2.1922e-2 1
12
13 vap.fract. = 0.455
14
15 Component xF T (K) Pvp (Pa) Ki xi yi = Ki xi
16 Ethane 0.10 315.6 5941966 11.884 0.017 0.200
17 Propane 0.15 315.6 1450184 2.900 0.080 0.233
18 Propene 0.08 315.6 1753714 3.507 0.037 0.131
19 Butane 0.20 315.6 405636 0.811 0.219 0.177
20 Butene 0.12 315.6 487846 0.976 0.121 0.118
21 Pentane 0.25 315.6 125409 0.251 0.379 0.095
22 Pentene 0.10 315.6 153355 0.307 0.146 0.045
23
24 1.000 1.000
25
26 Mass flow in = 1.500 kg/s
27 vapour flow= 0.682 kg/s
28 liquid flow= 0.818 kg/s
29
SeparationsinDistillationColumns
topproduct
Whenmanystagesarerequiredtoseparate
amixtureofchemicals,adistillationcolumn
isused.
Onestage
Eachstagerepresentsonecooling/heating
andseparationoperation.
Feed
Thevapourandliquidleavingastageare
assumedtobeinequilibrium.
bottom
product
ThePartsofaDistillationColumn
condenser QC topproduct
(overheadsordistillate)
Reflux
rectificationsection
Onestage
Feed
strippingsection
QH
bottomproduct
Reboiler (bottomsorresidue)
DesignofaDistillationColumn
Adistillationcolumnisessentiallyatubewithsomeinternalgas-liquidcontactingdevices.
Thediameterofthetubeisdeterminedbythehydrodynamics(fluidflowcharacteristics)ofthe
gas-liquidcontactingdevice.
Themaximumgas-liquidflowratethataplatecanprocessdeterminesthediameterofaplate
column.(floodinglimit)
Thelength(orheight)ofthecolumnisdeterminedbythenumberofstageswhichisrelatedto
thedifficultyoftheseparation.
Thecapitalcostofthecolumnisprimarilydeterminedbytheheightofthecolumn.
Theoperatingcostisdeterminedbytheamountofheatingandcoolingrequiredinthereboiler
andcondenser.
Theparameterthatcontrolsboththesecostsiscalledtherefluxratio.
DesignofaDistillationColumn
optimumcost
totalcost
operatingcosts
Cost
fixedcosts
RefluxRatio
DesignofaDistillationColumn
Thekeyfeaturesofcolumndesignandoperationcanbeexaminedusingasimplemodelofa
binarydistillation.
ThisiscalledtheMcCabe-Thielemethod.
Itisbasedonaplotofthemolefractionofacomponentinthevapourandliquidatequilibrium.
Thekeyassumptioninthemodelisthattheliquidandvapourflowratesintherectificationand
strippingsectionsofthecolumnareconstant.
Thebasisofthisassumptionisasfollows
-Onanystageinthecolumntheleastvolatilecomponent(highestboilingtemperature)is
condensingfromthevapourandevaporatingthemostvolatilecomponent(lowestboiling
temperature).
-Iftheheatsofvaporisationofbothcomponentsarethesamethenthevapourandliquidflows
willremainconstant.
-Thisisagoodapproximationforhydrocarbonsystems.
Txy data for Benzene-Toluene at 101300 Pa
120
110 vapour
Temperature (C)
100
90
liquid 80
composition liquid
vapour 70
composition 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mole fraction Benzene
VapourandLiquidcompositionsatequilibriumareplottedonaseparatechart
y-x diagram for Benzene-Toluene at 101300 Pa
1.0
0.9
0.8
Mole fraction benzene in vapour
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mole fraction benzene in liquid
Example
200molsofafeedcontaining50mol%benzeneand50mol%tolueneistobeseparatedintoatop
productcontaining99.5mol%benzeneandabottomproductcontaining99.5mol%toluene.Determine
thenumberofstagesrequirediftherefluxratiois1.5timestheminimumrequired.
Condenser QC xD=0.995
D
overallmassbalanceonthecolumn
L0
rectificationsection
F=D+B
200=D+B
componentbalanceonthecolumn
F
xF =0.5 xF F=xDD+xB B
strippingsection
100=0.995D+0.005B
SolveforDandB
B=100mols
QH D=100mols
B
Reboiler xB =0.005
Condenser QC xD=0.995
overallmassbalanceonrectificationsection
D
Vn-1=Ln+D
L0
componentmassbalance
yVn-1=xLn+xDD
stagen Thevapourflowrateisconstant-V
LiquidflowsareconstantL0 =Ln
DefinetherefluxratioasR=L0 /D RD=L0
LiquidLn VapourVn-1
incorporatingtheseassumptionsanddefinitionsinthe
componentmassbalance
yV=xRD+xDD
rearrangingandsimplifying
R xD
y = x +
R +1 R +1
*Theequation:
R xD
y = x +
R +1 R +1
iscalledtheoperating lineequationwhichrepresentsthecompositionsbetweenstages.
Theoperatinglineinthismodelistheequationofastraightlinewhosegradientandinterceptdependon
therefluxratio.
*Thisoperatinglineisvalidabovethefeedpoint.
Belowthefeedpointmassbalancesyieldthefollowingoperatingline
y=x
(R + F D) + x D - x F F
(1+ R) (1+ R) D(1+ R)
Theminimumrefluxratiocorrespondstotheliquidflowdownthecolumnfromthecondenserthatwill
causethevapourflowfrombelowthefeedtobeinequilibriumwiththeliquidfromabovethefeed
Atminimumrefluxthecolumncannotoperate
y-x diagram for Benzene-Toluene at 101300 Pa
1.0
0.9
operatinglineatminimumreflux
0.8
Mole fraction benzene in vapour
intercept=0.43
0.7
0.6
0.5
Usingthevalueoftheinterceptwe
0.4 canfindRm i n
xD 0.995
0.43 = = fi Rmin = 1.971
0.3 Rmin + 1 R min + 1
0.2 Sinceweareusing1.5timesRm i n
Feed
Rm i n=1.5x1.314=1.971
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mole fraction benzene in liquid
y-x diagram for Benzene-Toluene at 101300 Pa
1.0
0.9
0.8
Mole fraction benzene in vapour
0.7
0.6
0.5
17stages.feedon8thStage
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 Feed
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mole fraction benzene in liquid