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57544
ENAP
 THE UKRAINIAN
ICON
Text by
Liudmila MILIAYEVA

PARKSTONE
AURORA

PARKSTONE PRESS PUBLISHERS, BOURNEMOUTH

AURORA ART PUBLISHERS, SAINT PETERSBURG

- o5?5 .1///
 or the Eastern Slavs, as for all Chris
tian peoples, the cult of the icon was
synonymous with Byzantium, the
mighty medieval empire with
Constantinople"The New
Rome"as its capital. From the ith century on,
Byzantium exerted a political and religious
influence on the whole of Christian Europe. In
the Byzantine Empire the veneration of icons
became an integral part of the Holy Liturgy,
though the practice only won official approval
after the dramatic events of the years of icono
clasm (8th9th centuries). The struggle between
the iconoclasts and the supporters of icons led to
the formulation of a doctrinal justification for
the icon's role in religious ceremonies, and crea
ted an aesthetic of decorative art that has come
to be known as the "Byzantine" sryle '. It chan
ged markedly through the centuries, but the reli
gious painting of every Orthodox country
preserved the "Byzantine tradition" for centuries
to come.
The Eastern Slavswere introduced to Byzantine
culture in the 1 Och century. Their conversion to
Christianity coincided with the most brilliant
epoch of Byzantine art, which was reflected in
the artistic culture of the young feudal state of
Kievan Rus, in the physical appearance of Kiev,
and in the country's first stone church, the Tithe
Church (98996), so called because one tenth of
the principality's revenue went on its upkeep.
The conversion of the Great Prince of Kiev Vla
dimir (9801015) helped Kievan Rus to become
part of European civilisation, in which Byzan
tium at that time played a leading role. Kievan
Rus attained a certain status in the Byzantine
5
church hierarchy, and preserved its independen
ce from the empire and its special political posi
tion. The river route "from the Varangians to the
Greeks", passing through towns such as Novgo
rod and Kiev, linked the Baltic to the Black Sea.
The trade artery strengthened the power of every
Slavonic tribe that lived in this vast territory, and
Christianity assisted their unification and conso
lidation. They developed their own form of
Byzantine culture. The absence of any language
barrier facilitated the assimilation of theological
concepts. Kiev's Monastery of the Caves, foun
ded in the mid l l th century, was subordinate to
the Studios Monastery in Constantinople.
Under Prince Vladimir's son Yaroslav the
Wise, Kievan Rus experienced a cultural
boom. Stone churches were built in Kiev,
Chernigov, and faraway Tmudrakhan. But
the most magnificent and impressive churches
were the fresco and mosaicdecorated
churches of Kiev. The Kievans adapted the
Byzantine model to create their own style, a
style shaped by different historical traditions
and social irnperatives+. The metropolitan
St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev (101 751) and
the abovementioned Tithe Church (98996),
with their many domes and combination of
frescos and mosaics, represented a departure
from Byzantine tradition. The monumental
painting was part of a complex theological
agenda that asserted the electedness of the Kie
van prince and his dynasty. The l l thcentury
Kievan writer Metropolitan Ilarion addressed
the late Great Prince Vladimir in a sermon in
the following words: "Arise. Look at the city,
radiant in its grandeur, at its flourishing
churches ... a city protected by icons of the
Saints ... "5 A chronicler of the time writes of unprecedented speed with which they absor
the benefits of literacy (Yaroslav the Wise bed a sophisticated foreign culture remains
founded a school) : "Books are the rivers that unsolved V.
water the universe, the source of wisdorn'v.
Icons and their miracleworking powers were
The "Lives of the Fathers of Kiev's Monastery of assigned a special place in the act of worship.
the Caves", a collection They were the object
of stories from the his of veneration and
tory of the monastery devotion and an inte
and its inhabitants, gral part of the litur
narrates how the Kie gy, and were used in
vans were taught to official ceremonies.
paint by Greek artists, They gave moral sup
how they honed their port to the warrior on
professional skills and the battlefield, where
mastered the funda tents were some
mentals of composi times converted into
tion and drawing using chapels". Byzantine
timehonoured stan theologians asserted:
dard images that pos "When we venerate
sessed a religious 2. Detail of a late1 Ochcentury fresco in the icons, we are not
Church of the Tithe, Kiev
canonicity. Their col worshipping them,
Present whereabouts unknown
laboration with the but [are worshipping]
Byzantines instilled in through them those
them a deep reverence for iconography, initiated whom they depict; the rendered image
them into the mysteries of the creative process, becomes a conduit to the prototype."?
and taught them how to paint frescos, icons, and
miniatures. In the l Oth and early11th centuries The artistic legacy that has survived is but a frac
Kiev and the other towns of Kievan Rus produ tion of what was produced in the heyday of Kie
ced reliefs, enamels, and gold, silver, and glass van Rus, and any study of that legacy has to take
jewellery. In the l l th century Kievan mosaics, into account the "destruction factor". This is
frescos, and illuminated manuscripts (for particularly true for iconpainting: in the towns
example, the Ostromir Gospels, 10567, ill., and of southern Rus, including Kiev, not one icon
Svyatoslav Miscellany, 1073, ill.) were already has survived older than the 17th century.
deservedly famous.
However, iconpainting of the l Oth and early
What is most surprising is that the art of Kie 11th centuries can be reconstructed from a num
van Rus knew no "childhood" : it arrived on ber of icons which have survived in Russia; these
the scene already fully developed. The acade include several wellknown examples that are
mician Boris Rybakov has written: "This dra either the work ofKievan artistic culture or stand
matic leap forward cannot be explained in the same tradition. Their attribution and
merely through the schooling they received dating have been the object of debate throu
from the Byzantines, though Rus undoubted ghout the 20th century, a debate that has still
ly learnt a lot from them. The mystery of the not been resolved.

6
 4. The Virgin of Vladimir. l l rh - early 12th century. Detail
The Dorrnirion Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin

mir. Detail
6. Sc George the Warrior. 11 ch - l Zth centuries
Dorrnition Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin
 The late-11th/early-12th-century icon "Our
Lady of the Great Panagia" is often ascribed to
the legendary Kievan artist Alimpi, a monk in
Kiev's Monastery of the Caves, who lived in the
late l l th and early 12th centuries and was sub-
sequently canonised. The superbly executed
figure of the Virgin Orans with the Saviour
Emmanuel in her lap combines poetic feminini-
ty with solemn majesty. It possesses a monu-
mental compositional unity that is peculiar to
mosaics. In its proportions and its treatment of
the golds of the stole it bears an indisputable
resemblance to the mosaics in St Michael's Gol-
den-Domed Cathedral, Kiev (1108-13; un.

In the whole of Kievan Rus only Kiev possessed

any mosaics, and it is therefore probably in that
city that the master painted his mosaic-style

7. An Archangel. Mid-11 rh century.

Detail of the mosaic The Eucharist
Sr Sophiais Cathedral, Kiev

An example is the famous two-sided icon

"St George the Warrior" (11th-12th centuries)
in the Cathedral of the Assumption in the Mos-
cow Kremlin. Its epic style and the hellenistic
nobility of the saint's features remind some resear-
chers, and not without reason, of the monumen-
tal paintings in Kiev's St Sophia Cathedral (ill.).
The image's epic character is enhanced by the
icon's unusually large size (the warrior's seated
figure is double life-size)-roughly that of Kievan
altar-screens of the l l th century!" ..

The cult of St George in Kiev had its origins in

Yaroslavthe Wise's taking of the name George
on his conversion to Christianity; a chapel was
dedicated to St George in St Sophia Cathedral,
and in 1037 work was started on a church of
St George and a feast-day established in his 8. An Archangel. Mid-Ll th century. Fresco
honour. Sr Sophiais Cathedral, Kiev

11
 9. The Eucharist. Mosaic from the Cathedral of St Michael with the Gold Domes, Kiev. 1108-14
St Sophiais Architectural and Historical Preserve, Kiev

11. St George and St Theodore Srrarilates.

Relief from the Cathedral of St Michael with the Gold Domes, Kiev.
Early 12th century

10. St Cyril Writing a Homily. Fresco

in the Church of St Cyril, Kiev.
Second half of the l Zth century
12
12. The Archangel Gabriel (The Angel with the Golden Hair). 12th century
Russian Museum, St Petersburg

13
13. St Luke the Evangelist. Miniature from the Oscromir Gospel. 1056-57
National Library of Russia, St Petersburg.
icons. These include the l Zth-century icon "The tinople-"Our Lady of Vladimir". (Because it
Archangel Gabriel" ("The Golden-Haired was installed in the residence of the Great
Angel"). Princes of Kiev in the town of Vyshgorod, it
is sometimes referred to as "Our Lady ofVysh-
Legend links Kiev with the icon "Our Lady of gorod-Vladimir" .) Once on Kievan soil, this
Svyensk", which was brought to the Monastery exceptionally fine work was covered in glory
of the Assumption in and was much vene-
Svyensk,nearBryansk, rated. In 1155, to
in 1288 from Kiev's assert his sovereignty
Monastery of the over the Principality
Caves. The Virgin is of Vladimir-Suzdal,
depicted sitting on a the son of the then
throne flanked by the Prince of Kiev Yuri
monastery's founders, Dolgorukov, Andrei
the Venerable Antho- Bogolyubski, remo-
ny and Theodosius. ved the icon to Vladi-
This type ofVirgin has mir-on-Klyazma. It
come to be known as a became an object of
"Pecherski" ("Cave") veneration in his
Madonna. A number principality, and later
of researchers have in the whole of Rus-
dated the icon to the sia. The unknown
time of Alimpi (late painter created what
11th/early 12th centu- is perhaps one of the
ry), others to the late saddest and most lyri-
13th century, on the cal images of Mary in
basis of the story of its the history of arr l>.
removal to Kiev. The period of feudal
Recent palaeographic fragmentation (the
research of the writing second half of the
on the scrolls and x-ray 14. The Synaxis of the Saint Bishops. 12th century to the
photography have pro- Miniature from the Sviatoslav Anthology (Izbornik). 1073 first half of the 13th)
ved that the icon was Historical Museum, Moscow led to the formation
indeed painted at the of large and small
turn of the l l th and 12th centuries, but that it sovereign principalities, usually with no fixed
was partly repainted in the 13th century. In borders. Kievan Rus lost its power, but Kiev
contrast to other icons, here the monumentality remained the most important religious and
of the composition is combined with the almost cultural centre of the Eastern Slavs. In North-
portrait-like detail in the depiction of Saints Eastern Russia the Great-Russian nation
Anthony and Theodosius'<. was taking shape in Novgorod and Pskov, in
spite of the sometimes complicated difficult
In the early 12th century a masterpiece of relations between the two principalities. A
late-Ll th/ early-12th-century icon-painting Ukrainian nation was taking shape in the
was brought to Kiev from Constan- Dnieper region and in such geographical-

15
ethnic territories as Volhynia (the North- lov Gospels ( 1164), which possess vividly
west, including the basin of the river Pripyac), expressed local features.
Galicia (Transcarpachia, with the basin of the
Dniester, Stryy, and Western Bug), Podolia Roman of Galicia helped Byzantium to repul-
(southern Transdniestria), and Bukovina, in se the Polovtsian invasion of 1197-8, but in
the south-west. 1203 Constantinople fell co the Crusaders,
and Roman himself
From che 1130s on
'IS,
died in 1205 in the
Galicia, and from the war with Poland, lea-
1170s Volhynia, beca- vrng behind two
me the leading princi- young sons, Daniel
palities in the Ukraine, and Basil. The Princi-
and under Prince pality of Galicia-Vol-
Roman of Galicia ( d. hynia entered a
1205) they merged to period of turmoil, as
form the Principality the local boyars, Hun-
of Galicia-Volhynia. gary, and Poland
The princes of Galicia struggled for control.
were in close contact It lasted more than 30
with Byzantium: Prin- years, until Daniel
ce Yaroslav Osmomysl and Basil came co
(d. 1187) was a close power, first in Volhy-
friend of Andronicus nia, then in Galicia,
Comnenus (1113- where Daniel was
85), the rival of the only confirmed as
Byzantine emperor ruler in 1245. Star-
Manuel I (1143-80). ting in 1239, Tartar-
In 1164 Andronicus Mongol hordes swept
visited the capital, through the whole of
Galich, where he even Russia (except for the
sac in the principality's 15. St Mark the Evangelist. Novgorod lands). The
duma along with the Miniature from the Dobrilov Gospel. 1164 brothers Daniel of
boyars!". He was an State Library of Russia, Moscow Galicia (d. 1264) and
exceptional man, a Basil (d. 1269) devo-
dazzling orator, a philosopher, and from 1183 red the rest of their days to resisting the inva-
to 1185 the Emperor of Byzantium 15. Given sion, but victory eluded them.
the almost total loss of Galician paintings
from chis era, the late-12th/ early-13th-centu- The artistic culture of these lands in the 13th
ry Galician Gospels are particularly impor- century can only be reconstructed from archi-
tant: they are illuminated with wonderful tectural remains, archaeological excavations,
miniatures of the Evangelists in the style of and contemporary chronicles, such as the detai-
Byzantine art of the Comnenian era (ill.) 16. led description of the buildings erected by
An idea of l Zth-century Volhynian art can Daniel in Cholm (now Chelm in Poland). The
gleaned from the miniatures in the Dobri- chronicler mentions the Church of St John, with

16
its Romanesque windows and portals decorated Daniel's nephew, the Volhynian Prince Vladi-
in green and white Chelm stone, a tower, the mir Vasilkovich (d. 1286), was known not so
white-stone Church of of St Cosmas and St much as a wise statesman as as a scribe, patron,
Damian, and a column near the town "topped and artist. He transcribed 48 books, and illumi-
by a carved stone eagle" 17. The chronicle also nated some of them himself. He endowed
describes the great fire of 1259 that raged churches in Vladimir-in-Volhynia, Lyuboml
through Cholm (which contained
during the Tatar icons of St George and
pogrom; unusually for the Virgin "painted on
the time, Daniel gold"), Kamyenyets-
immediately set about Lirovsk, and other
rebuilding the town places. Legend has it
(apart from the tower). that he decorated
He paid especial atten- some of them himself.
tion to holy objects: he But neither the
had gold and bead churches nor their
decoration added to icons have survived.
the icons of the
Saviour and Virgin, In the l-ith century, the
which his sister Theo- Ukrainian lands fell
dora had given him under the influence of
from Kiev's Monastery the neighbouring states
of St Theodore, and of Poland, Hungary,
brought the icon "The and Lithuania, which
Purification" to the had the capacityto resist
town from Ovruch. the Golden Horde, and
The chronicle by the end of the centu-
confirms that a "truly ry they had divided
wonderful icon" was them amongst them-
lost in the fire, but that selves: the Dnieper
an icon Of "The 16. Sc Luke the Evangelist. Miniature from the Galich
region and Volhynia
Archangel Michael" Gospel. Lare 12th - early 13th century were placed under
survived. In 1260 Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Lithuanian rule, whilst
Daniel restored the Galiciafell to Poland. In
Marian Church, decorated it with "magical the 15th century Western Podolia went to Poland,
icons", and gave it a red-marble Hungarian cha- Eastern Podolia to Lithuania, Bukovina to Molda-
lice decorated with coiled snakes, which he pla- via, and Transcarpathia to Hungary. But the politi-
ced in front of the royal gates18. Pr1nce Daniel callydivided Ukrainian people did not lose sight of
of Galicia spent part of his life at the court of their common ethnic identity, an identity that was
the king of Poland and was a frequent visitor to expressedfirst and foremost in their language, folk
Hungary, and it is clear from the chronicle that customs, rituals, and Orthodox religion.
his artistic tastes combined a predilection for
old-Russian ideals with an appreciation of the Lithuanian rule did not lead to religious persecu-
beauty of Romanesque art. tion-the Lithuanian princes who ruled the

17
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conquered territories were thoroughly assimila- that the city possessed well-equipped book-pro-
ted and had converted to Orthodoxy, whereas duction studios, and that Kievan culture was
the Ukrainians of Galicia put up a staunch resis- developing in line with Byzantine tradition.
tance to Catholic aggression that lasted for seve- That tradition would prove to be probably the
ral centuries. Few works of art have survived from defining feature ofK.ievan art until the mid 16th
the 14th century, particularly in the former capi- century, and therefore a number of icons found
tal of Kiev, but they are in other parts of the
distinguished by superb Ukraine can justifia-
craftsmanship-ates- bly be ascribed to the
tament to an unbroken Kiev school. In Kiev
;. .
tradition. The false idea itself, the only survi-
has grown up that Kiev, ving evidence of l Sth-
. . .
after its sacking by the century 1con-pamtmg
Tartars, eked out a is a photograph of the
miserableexistenceand "Igoryovskaya Vir-
completely lost its for- gin", which was remo-
mer importance. It is ved by the Germans
true that after the Tar- during the Second
tar-Mongol invasion World War from
Kievnever recoveredits occupied Kiev and has
political prestige, and still not been found; as
that its economic to the 15th centur~
potential was also seve- there is only the "Vir-
rely undermined. gin Orans with the
However, it continued Venerable Anthony
to be an important reli- and Theodosius" relief
gious centre: every triptych (1470) on the
metropolitan of Russia facade of the bell-
in the late 13th and tower of Kiev's
l-ith centuries was Monastery of the
connected in one way 19. The Virgin of
Igoryovskaya. 13th century Caves.
or another with the Present whereabouts unknown
city. A landmark in the Our knowledge of
city's history was the sojourn of the enlightened l-ith- and 15th-century Ukrainian icon-pain-
Bulgarian-born Byzantine philosopher Cyprian ting is therefore based on the Volhynian and
(d. 1406)19. It was he and his close entourage Galician icons displayed in the museums of the
who were responsible for the transcription and Ukraine, Poland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic,
breathtaking illumination of the Kiev Psalter and Romania, and in the churches of the wes-
(ill.). The fact that the book was transcribed and tern Ukraine. In the eastern Ukraine, not one
illuminated in Kiev is highly significant: it is icon has survived older than the 17th century.
evidence that Kiev's legendary libraries had not
been destroyed ( the manuscript was copied from Until recently, there were thought to be no sur-
the l Zth-century Byzantine original, onto viving examples of early Volhynian painting: the
parchment prepared in the traditional manner), original of the Byzantine miracle-working icon

20
20. The Virgin Hodigitria. Late 13th - early 14th century
Local History Museum, Rovno

21
"Our Lady of Cholrn" disappeared without tra
ce earlier this century, along with blocked
enamel riza of the same vintage. In fact there are
no known surviving works by the renowned
iconpainter St Peter Ratyenski, the Father
Superior of the Ratsk Monastery in Galicia and
subsequently Metropolitan of Kiev (d. 1326)20.
Our knowledge of early Volhynian iconpain
ting is based entirely on icons discovered in the
60s, 70s and 80s. They do not fit into any single
stylistic design or "school", but reflect the indi
vidual styles of the artists who created them. This
"dissimilarity" may be due to the migration of
the artists and of the icons themselves.
One of the earliest Volhynian icons comes from
the Church of the Assumption in the Saviour
Assumption Monastery in Dorogobuzh"The
Virgin Hodigitria" (late 13th/ early Iith centu
ry). It has been subjected to a "retouching" ope
ration that is rare for the genre, which accounts
for its almost damaged appearance (ill.): for unk
nown reasons, the painting and its pavoloka
(heavy ornamented brocade) were removed from
the original board, cut out around the outline of
the figures of the Virgin and Child, and attached
to a new, slightly smaller board. The same thing
happened to the archangels that originally ador
ned the icon's corners (traces of them remain).
This was once a solemn, largescale icon. Mary
is dressed in a darkcherry stole fringed with gold
lace, which retains traces of the rich background
of the original (the golden sunbeams). The unu
sual drawing of the eyes makes the Virgin's face
look distressed and uneasy. Art historians claim
to detect in the icon the hand of a local artist (in
the l Zth century Dorogobuzh was the capital of
the Principality ofDorogobuzh, but in the 16th
century the SaviourAssumption Monastery
enjoyed close ties with Kiev's Monastery of the
Caves; several of its monks held the office of
archimandrite in that monastery). It is hard to
think of any icons that are remotely similar to
the Dorogobuzh Virgin, though there are argua
bly distant echoes of its style in the noless
22
unique icon "Our Lady of Compassion" (late
15th/early 16th century) from the village of
Dorosynya.
Entirely different in style is the latel 'ithcentury
"Our Lady of Volhynia'' from the Church of the
Protecting Veil in Lutsk. At that time Lutsk was
the secondmostimportant town in Volhynia
after VladimirinVolhynia, with a mighty castle,
large trade markets, and an active Orthodox com
munity. The icon of the Church of the Protec
ting Veil was thought to possess miracleworking
powers; it inspired many legends, and was
immortalised in folk song. Mary has an ascetic,
olivecoloured face, and her large asymmetrical
eyes are full of deep sadness. The shaded part of
her face is illuminated by a single beam of light
that runs down her cheek. The icon has a drama
tic tension typical of Byzantine art of the Palaeo
logian era. There is an unusual detail in the icon's
iconographyMary'sstole is decorated with four
stars instead of the usual three: perhaps the artist
was a member of the clergy, well versed in reli
gious symbolism, and endowed the image with
some sort of special meaning. Lutsk was then at
the centre of the struggle between the pretenders
to the office of Metropolitan of the GalicioVol
hynian metropolitan see and Byzantium, which
was defending its ancient right to control a uni
fied church hierarchy. (In 1397 one Michael of
Bethlehem was despatched to Lutsk by the Byzan
tine patriarch Anthony as administrator of the
lands of the western Ukraine.)
The icons give an insight into the religious life of
the Volhynians in the late 13th and 14th centuries.
In Galicia, which in the lith and 15th centuries
was under the Polish yoke, there developed two
important schools of art (we are ignoring the
smaller schools, which could more accurately be
described as studios). They were based in Lvov
and Peremyshl. At that time Lvov was the most
prosperous town in the western Ukraine. Becau
 , .
'~,,

, "'I!
',-,
~

21. The Virgin Hodigitria ofVolhynia. Second half of the lith century
National Art Museum, Kiev
se of its prime geographical position at the cross ly15thcentury "Dominican Virgin"22) and
roads of the NorthSouth trade route and the individual Catholic churches (the llthcenrury
route between eastern and western Europe, it "Our Lady ofLvov"). Completely different in
quickly grew rich and expanded, attracting feel is the 15thcentury "Virgin Hodigitria" from
enterprising people from both southern and nor the Church of St Dimitrios in the village ofK.ra
thern Europe. Its social composition was unique: sovo ( even though all three of these icons depict
there were no aristocra the Virgin Hodigi
tic families in the city. It tria): the figure of
was a city of craftsmen, Mary is deeply lyrical,
merchants, entrepre poetic, and feminine.
neurs, and clergymen, Her face radiates a spe
and was also a sort of cial warmth. It is diffi
Ukrainian Babylon: the cult to tell which
city was home not only church this icon was
to native Ukrainians, originally intended
but to Poles, Germans, for, though there is
Armenians, Jews, some evidence that it
Greeks and Italians. By once hung in a church
the early 16th century, in Lvov, which would
this pettybourgeois explain its popularity
milieu had already in the 16th century;
spawned a layer of edu numerous copies of it
cated, professional have survived.
people. Ukrainians
from Galicia studied in The episcopal court in
the universities of Peremyshl (now Prze
Poland and Italy. Paul mysl, Poland) had a
Rusin ofK.rosno, Geor studio that developed
ge Kotermak of Drogo a whole new school of
b y ch, Roksolan Ukrainian iconpain
Oryechovski and others ting. (The bishops'
were the first Ukrainian residence in Sambor
hurnanistsI. All this also had a studio, who
could not but have an se artists enjoyed close
effect on the style of the links with the local
Galician icon. monasteries.) These
22. SS Basil and Peter. Icon. Late l Sth early 16th century painters had carefully
Church in the village of Lisiatichi, Lvov Region
Lvov icons of the Iith studied the art of the
and early 15th centu "Golden Age" of Kie
ries echo the aesthetic ideals of both Catholi van Rus, and it showed in both their fine know
cism and Orthodoxy. Byzantine typology is ledge of iconography and the monumentalism of
combined with Gothic elements, and this is par form, rhythmic harmony of composition, preci
ticularly noticeable in those that belonged to sion of drawing, and nobility of colouring. They
Catholic orders (for example, the late14th/ear also had close links with contemporary Kiev, and

24
23. Christ Pancocrator. l Sth century
National Museum, Lvov
24. The Nativity of the Virgin. l Sth century
National Museum, Lvov
this is evident in a number of Peremyshl icons re to Gothic art, but by their close collaboration
painted in a vividly KievoByzantine style. For with Catholic artists. In the late Ilth and l Sth
example, the early15thcentury companion centuries, Ukrainian artists (we know their
icons of the archangels from the village of Dale names: Andrei, Vladyk, and Gail) oversaw the
wo (now in Poland) are close to the Kievan school creation of a series of Byzantinestyle paintings
of the era of Metropolitan Cyprian; they bear a destined for Catholic churches. They were
marked resemblance contracted by the Poli
to the miniatures in sh kings Wladislaw
the Kiev Psalter Jagielo (d. 1434) and
(1397). In its icono Casimir IV (142792).
graphy the Peremyshl Nevertheless, the wes
school preserved tra tern elements in icon
ditional Byzantine painting of the 15th
typology, which was and early 16th centu
disappearing from the ries did not affect the
Orthodox art of other Orthodox imagery of
countries. This may the Ukrainian icon,
have been due to the which was also influen
fact that until the mid ced by contacts with
16th century the Bulgaria, Serbia, Mol
Ukraine possessed no daviaWallachia, and
tall iconostases, of Russia. One of the
which such icons tra remarkable works to
ditionally formed part have survived from this
(for example, "The era is the "Adoration of
Saviour Pantocrator" the Magi" from the vil
from the village of lage of Busovysko. It is
Mylyk, and the Deesis distinguished by its
from the village of Sta impeccable composi
rychi). tional harmony, the
perfection of the
The legacy of the Per figures' proportions,
e mys h l school 25. The Virgin of Lvov. lith century and the rhythm of its
Picture Gallery, Lvov
includes a group of painting. The icon
icons from the villages recalls the frescos of the
ofVanivko and Zvyzhen whose iconographic same vintage in the Church of St Onofrius in
style betrays an obvious Gothic influence. This the village of Lavrovo near Sambor, which dis
is evident not so much in the imagery as in the plays features of Serbian painting.
detailing (the knights, stylised castle, and folds
of the cloak in the 15thcentury "The Miracle of Most Ukrainian icons are comparatively small
St George and the Dragon" from Zvyzhen). in size (with the exception of murals of the Pas
sion and Last Judgement), and were painted for
The presence of Gothic elements in these icons provincial and rural wooden churches. They
can be explained not just by the masters' exposu were commissioned by town and village com

27
26. St Nicetas and a Devil. MidLoth century
National Museum, Lvov
munes, and the artists undoubtedly made allo
wances for their tastes. Ukrainian wooden
churches were characterised by the height of their
interiors. They were built of trimmed logs, and
their walls were painted or covered with large
icons of the Passion and Last Judgement. In mas
king the timber, these icons produced unexpec
ted effects in the wooden churches, particularly
when they were painted on gold backgrounds.
They transformed the interior, and bring to
mind the goldbackground mosaics a~d frescos
of the famous churches of Kievan Rus. The large
monumental icons performed a similar function
to the monumental murals on the same themes
which normally adorned the same parts of the
church. They shared the same iconography and
compositional principles. And though the l Sth
century icon was influenced by murals (the Zvyz
hen "Passion"), from the 16th century on the
reversephenomenon can be observed: the narra
tive style of the icon and its treatment of certain
scenes were taken up by muralpainters. Strict
formulas were evolved for the positioning of such
icons and paintings. The largest tableauthe
"Crucifixion", the cycle's apotheosiswas nor
mally placed in the centre, flanked by depictions
of scenesfrom the Passion, which ranged in n um
ber from six to 35 (for example, the late
l 5th/early16thcentury "Passion" from the
village ofTrushevichi, and the midLothcentu
ry "Passion" from Drogobych).

An icon of the Last Judgement was almost obli

gatory for Ukrainian churches. It would be pla
ced in various locations: either in the narthex
(western end of the nave) or on the northern or
southern walls of the nave. The artist often
embellished the obligatory canonical scheme
with figures drawn from contemporary life, such
as rich men, dishonest millers, weavers, landla
dies in their taverns (often dancing), and non

27. The Last Judgement. Mid16th century. Detail

National Museum, Lvov

29
believers of other nationalities and races (the monastery's school; evidence suggests that in the
latel Sth/ earlyLothcentury "Last Judgement" l Sth and l oth centuries there was a studio here.
from the village ofMshany). Information on this era is scarce, which is why
manuscript evidence of the fate of the Cathedral
One of the recently discovered Volhynian of the Assumption is so important: in 1470 it
iconsa late15th/ ear was meticulously res
lyLorhcentury Dee tored by the then ruler
sisis characterised by of Kiev, the Lithuanian
Byzantine imagery prince Simeon Olyel
unusual in both Vol kovich (d. 1471), and
hynian and Galician damaged in 1482
art of the time. The during Mengli Giray's
unadulterated Byzan invasion; in 15 5 56 the
tine style of this icon is interior was restored,
evidence that it may probably by the
have been painted in monastery s own
)

Kiev, a city that cheri artists.

shed the old Byzanti
ne traditions. The fact In the 16th century the
that l oth and l 7th Monastery of the
century Volhynian Caves was in constant
and Galician icons fol communication with
lowed an unusual ico the Byelorussian
nagraphical canon monasteries ofVilnius,
only confirms the Slutsk, Novogrudok,
hypothesis that in the and Suprasl, which was
Ukraine the highest placed under its autho
esteem was accorded rity. But Kiev had espe
to icons from Kiev. cially strong links with
Volhynia, where most
Kiev had recovered towns were the proper
from its sacking in 28. Master Andriychina Mnogogrishny ty of powerful Ortho
1492 by the Tartar St Basil the Great. Miniature from a servicebook. dox Ukrainian barons.
khan Mengli Giray, First half of the l Sth century They were patrons of
Historical Museum, Moscow
and was gradually the arts, and gave assis
returning to its previous way of life. Kiev's tance to the monasteries (including those in
Monastery of the Caves was an intellectual powe Kiev), endowed churches, and commissioned
rhouse. Liturgical books were edited and trans icons and murals for them. The combination of
cribed here, before being distributed to other their secular tastes and the new direction art had
Ukrainian monasteries. The monastery enjoyed taken since the mid l oth century had a huge
an authority in the Orthodox world that exten affect on Ukrainian artistic culture.
ded well beyond the borders of the Ukraine. And
when it came to restocking their library, the In 1576 the Volhynian baron Prince Constantine
monks did not forget the book needs of the Vasilyevich of Ostrog (15261608) founded a

30
school in the town of Ostrog, Volhynia, that would Ostrog, where he carried on his publishing work.
be known to history as the SlavonicGrecoLatin The Ostrog circle collectively prepared, edited,
Academy. He was encouraged in his educational and in 1581 published the celebrated "Ostrog
work by the activities of the CounterReforma Bible". It is difficult to exaggerate the Academy's
tion then under way in Poland, which also affec importance in Ukrainian culture. It survived
ted Volhynia: in 1569, until the death of its
the whole territory was founder in 160823.
ceded to the Rzechpos
poli ta (Poland). The The second half of the
Ostrog circle brought l oth century saw an
together intellectuals of increase in the number
many different nationa of educated Ukrai
litiesUkrainians, Rus nians, who came from
sians, Byelorussians, all social strata of
Greeks, Moldavians, Ukrainian society.The
Serbs, and Poleswho ideas of the Reforma
had graduated from tion partly inspired the
the Universities of first attempts at trans
Cracow, Padua, and lating the Gospels into
Venice. The Academy's Ukrainian. The most
Orthodox character magnificent rnanus
turned it into an ideo criptswere produced in
logical centre: it pos Volhynia, among them
sessed not only a the magnificent "Per
school, but a printing esopnichi Gospels"
press, which churned (15 5661), decorated
out polemical tracts. with miniatures of the
Constantine was a clo Evangelists and won
se friend of Prince der f u 11 y stylised
Andrew of Kurbsk Renaissance ornamen
(circa 152883), who tation, of impeccable
had emigrated to Vol form and stylistic puri
29. St Luke the Evangelist. Miniature from the
hynia. The Ostrog Peresopnitsy Gospel. 155661 ty, These manuscripts
Academy educated Central Research Library of the Academy were usually gifts from
many prominent of Sciences of the Ukraine, Kiev Volhynian barons: the
figures of the 17th century. "Zaborovski Books of the Apostles" (1554) were
donated to the monastery by the Volhynian Mar
The Russian printing pioneer Ivan Fyodorov shal P. Zaborovski, whilst Princess M.S. Ivanits
(circa 151083), "a Muscovite and printer of kaya commissioned the Galician master
hitherto unknown books", as the people of Lvov Fyedusko of Sambor to paint the "Annuncia
described him on his 16thcentury gravestone, tion" icon (1579) for the village church of Ivani
made a great contribution to the Ostrog Acade chi; in spite of its solemnity and ostentation, it
my. In 15 80 he moved from Lvov,where in 15 74 shows signs of a new style, both in Mary's relaxed
he had printed the "Books of the Apostles", to posture and in its imitation of engraving in the

31
30. The Apostle Peter and the Virgin. 1570s
National Museum, Lvov
31. The Apostles Simon and Bartholomew. 1570s
National Museum, Lvov
drawing of the folds of the fabrics. Fyedusko of against the embossed or carved gesso back-
Sambor set up a studio (probably in Sambor) grounds which adorned the Ukrainian icon from
that was to enjoy great popularity in the second that time on.
half of the 16th century. The icons it produced
can be seen in numerous wooden churches in The stylistic changes particularly affected the
Galicia, Slovakia, icons of the feast-days:
Romania and Volhy- influenced by West-
nia. One of the studio's European engravings,
finest pieces is the Dee- their iconography fre-
sis from the village of quently changed. The
Nakonyechnoye, near Church reacted tole-
Lvov. rantly to all of this. By
the 1580s, artists
The Nakonyechnoye began to include
Deesis marks a new sta- depictions of interiors
ge in the development and household items.
of Ukrainian icon-pain- The biggest changes
ting, since it forms part occurred in icons of
of an altar screen rather the Passion and Last
than a high iconostasis. Judgement. The mas-
It contains images of the ters painted accurate
12 Apostles, as well as yet grotesque portraits
icons of the Feast-day of evil men, and intro-
Row. The prophets were duced contemporary
only added to the icono- costumes, which com-
stasis in the late 16th bine whimsically with
century. In the second the conventional
half of the l oth century, architecture of pavi-
tall iconostases were lions, the arbitrary sca-
erected in both old and le of the figures, and
newly built churches. the reverse perspecti-
Only the royal gates ve. They sometimes
were decorated with used both free drawing
carvings. A formal plan 32. Detail of an icon of The Passion of Christ. and a traditional treat-
was elaborated for the Jviid-16th century ment of the face in one
The Church of the Exaltation of the Cross
arrangement of icons and the same icon ( the
in the town of Drogobych, Lvov Region
on the iconostasis, yet mid-16th-century
no two of them are alike: each was accorded spe- "Passion" from Drogobych, the latc-Loth-cen-
cial veneration by the community and the priests. tury "Resurrection" from Rava-Russkaya).
By the 1570s, Deesis Rows like that in Nako-
nyechnoye had acquired an especially majestic Icon-painting was influenced by popular
appearance; the figures seemed to hover in space, folk stories of the time (the mid-16th-cen-
precisely drawn incorporeal silhouettes illumina- tury "Exaltation of the Holy Cross" from
ted by a mysterious light. They looked stunning Drogobych).

34
 The depiction of landscape in icons started to the master Theodore of Lvov. The artist does
change from the 1580s: instead of the conven- not violate the iconography of the Virgin Hodi-
tional ledged hillocks, the masters painted sim- gi tria, yet Mary's face, poetic and attractive,
plified yet immediately recognisable versions of seems to be that of a real woman. The master
the Carpathian landscape, with its characteristic was obviously a portraitist. To give the figure a
conifers. They skilfully combined the conven- greater sense of movement, he used oil paints
tional two-dimensio- on an egg tempera.
nal treatment of The art of the new era
landscape with aerial brought about funda-
perspective, conveyed mental changes in the
through the lighting appearance of the
(the late-Leth-century Ukrainian icon of the
"Transfiguration" 17th and l Sth centu-
from the village of ries. The dawn of the
Yablunyevo). 17th century marked a
stylistic watershed in
The temptation to use Ukrainian religious
west-European art, pamtmg.
especially engravings,
as a model went hand In the late 16th and
in hand with an awa- early 17th centuries,
reness of the need not the Ukraine was wrac-
to do so indiscrimina- ked by social, econo-
tely, since the masters mic, and political
were obliged always to conflicts, which were
preserve the sense of exacerbated by reli-
sanctity that made gious strife. Poland
their works genume had embarked on its
icons. 36. St John the Baptist with Scenes from His Life. struggle with the
First half of the l Sth century. The Church of the Holy Reformation, a
Nevertheless, by the Spirit in the town of Rogatin, Ivano-Frankovsk Region struggle that involved
end of the 16th centu- the catholicisaticn of
ry tradition in the Ukrainian icon had largely adherents of different faiths, or "schismatics".
gone by the board. In the history of art of the The Union ofBeresteczko of 1596 represented
Orthodox peoples, the period following the fall a successful diplomatic step in this direction.
of Byzantium in 1453 is known as "Byzantium The Counter-Reformation was categorical and
after Byzantium". It was shortest in the Ukraine, resolute, and it offered the Ukrainians the
lasting only until the 17th century, although it Greek-Catholic Uniate confession, subordina-
survived elsewhere until the 19th century. te to the Pope of Rome. But the establishment
of this new church acted as yet another spur to
The secular portrait began to have an impact on the many-faceted national-liberation move-
the icon as early as the l Gth century (ill.). A ment, which engulfed the Ukraine from the
good example of this transitional period is the late l oth century and would be active for a fur-
"Virgin of the Akathistos Hymn" from 1599 by ther two hundred years.

39
35 Fiodor from Lvov
e Vir in of the Acathistos Hymn. 1599. Detail
One of the main forces in the struggle for Ukrai- The patriotic upsurge and the growth of Ukrai-
nian independence were the Cossacks. They had nian national consciousness in the first half of the
arisen a century earlier around the lower reaches 17th century took many forms, and drew in all
of the Dnieper, beyond its rapids (porogi), from sections of Ukrainian society. In 1620 the Cos-
which they came to be known as the "Zaporoz- sacks succeeded in having the church hierarchy
he Cossacks" ("The Cossacks from Beyond the restored, and Kiev again became the seat of the
Rapids"). Metropolitan of Kiev, thanks largely to the efforts
of the enlightened Herman of the Zaporozhe Host
In thesecondhalfofthe Peter Konashevich-
16th century the Cos- Sagaidachni (d. 1622),
sack Host was swelled the "valiant knight", as
by peasants escaping he was christened by
from serfdom, and it his contemporaries.
began to pose a serious From the late 16th
threat to the Turks and century, predomi-
Tartars who had devas- nantly petty-bour-
tated the southern geois lay brotherhoods
Ukraine. In the late attached to churches
16th and early 17th were set up throu-
centuries the insurrec- ghout the Ukraine.
tions developed into a They saw their prima-
national-liberation war ry function as-educa-
(1648-54) that spread t ion al - to found
throughout the Ukrai- schools and printing-
ne. The war with p res ses. (In 1615
Poland drew in Turkey, Sagaidachni enrolled
Russia, and the Cri- the entire Zaporozhe
mean Tartars, butitwas Host in the Kiev Bro-
the Zaporozhe Cos- therhood.)
sacks who played the
leading role. The The first half of the
struggle for indepen- 17th century saw an
dence was led by the 39. Portrait of the Kievan Metropolitan Peter Mogila. 1644 explosion in publi-
talented commander Fresco from the Deesis tier shing, and the accom-
The Church of the Transfiguration on the Berestovo, Kiev
and politician Zinovy panying development
Bogdan Khmelnitski of various literary
(1595-1657), the Hetman of the Ukraine. The genres, first and foremost the liturgical and pole-
peace proposals agreed between Russia and the mical genres (the latter highly topical during the
Ukraine at the Pereyaslav Council in 1654 were struggle against the Union), but also the so-cal-
never implemented, and the Truce of Andruso- led "school drama'' and the eulogy, often in ver-
vo of 1667 between Poland and Russia divided se. The acorn planted by the Muscovite
the Ukraine along the Dnieper-Poland took its book-publisher Ivan Fyodorov was growing into
right bank, whilst Russia took its left bank and a mighty oak tree. Book-publishing was stimu-
Kiev. lated by the development of engraving-wood-

41
cuts in the first half of the century, relief engra todo petty bourgeois, who made their presence
ving in the second. The college of the Kiev Bro felt in the city by founding their own Orthodox
therhood, founded in 1632 by the Metropolitan centre on Rus Street.
of Kiev Peter Mogila (15961647), was the direct
ancestor of the first EastSlavonic universitythe Lvov was restored after the devastating fire of
KievMogila Collegium. Peter Mogila, a cele 1527, which destroyed the Gothic city, but it
brated polemicist and was struck by another
patron, devoted a lot fire in 1571. The buil
of effort to reforming dings that have survi
and strengthening the ved allow the trained
authority of the Ukrai eye to trace the whole
man church. The complex sociopoliti
rebirth of Kiev's cultu cal environment of the
ral life was greatly Rzechpospolita, and
aided by the Lvov with it the Ukraine, on
intellectuals who took the eve of the I7th cen
up residence in the tury.
city.
Just how much the
The importance of petty bourgeoisie had
Kiev as a centre of consolidated its posi
artistic culture in the tion in the city can be
first half of the I7th seen from Lvov's
century is attested to Renaissance stone
by numerous engra mansions, which were
vings and gorgeously sometimes austere and
decorated books, and functional, sometimes
by the enthusiastic tes almost palatial. They
timony of travellers. belonged to members
They describe the of the various different
interiors and icorio 40. Unknown artist nationalities that had
stases of the city's Portrait ofJan Gerburt. Late l Gth century. Detail settled in this cosmo
churches, and give Picture Gallery, Lvov politan cityPoles,
particularly detailed Greeks, Ukrainians,
descriptions of their icons. Unfortunately, only Armenians, and Italians. The Polish petty bour
one of these has survivedthe early17thcentury geois were often so rich that they could afford to
"St Nicholas"; only recently discovered by resto build themselves family chapels. The successes of
rers, it is stylistically closest to Lvov icons and the CounterRevolution led to the Catholic
miniatures of the time. Church's assuming an increasingly important
role in the city: large plots ofland were set aside
The Lvov Brotherhood (which was independent for monasteries of the various Catholic orders,
of the Ukrainian church hierarchy) enjoyed a behind whose fortresslike walls the monks felt
particular authority among the brotherhoods=. themselves secure and sovereign. This is why it
Its members were energetic, educated, fairly well was so important for the Ukrainians to assert the

42
claims of Orthodox culture through the were undoubtedly influenced by west-European
construction of the complex of buildings on Rus painting and engraving, the Ukrainian icon, sur-
Street. The Lvov Brotherhood's complex was prisingly, observed a sober balance between chur-
composed of the Church of the Assumption ch tradition and artistic innovation.
(1591-1629), the Chapel of the Three Prelates,
and the Kornyaktos Bell-Tower (1572-1578), so The iconostasis for Lvov's Church of the
called in honour of its Assumption was
founder-the Greek contracted to the
Constantine Kornyak- most sought-after
tos, an influential mem- Ukrainian painter of
ber of the Brotherhood. the time in the city,
Theodore Syenkovich
Most of the architects (d. circa 1631). He
were Italian: Peter Ita- was paid the unprece-
lius, Paul Rimlyanin dented sum of 2000
("the Roman"), Ambro- zlotys for the work. It
se Prikhilni, Vojtech was completed in
Kapinos, and Peter Bar- time for the church's
bon. Following the tastes consecration in 1630,
and specific instructions but was badly dama-
of the Brotherhood, they ged in the fire that
combined the stylistic broke out shortly
purity of Renaissance afterwards. It was
architecture with a com- only restored in 1638,
positional scheme typi- for 1200 zlotys, by
cal of Ukrainian folk Syenkovich's bro-
architecture, which ther-in-law Mykola
made the churches and Petrakhnovich. The
bell-rower stand out contract between the
from the surrounding Brothers and Pecrakh-
Catholic churches; the novich stipulated that
Brotherhood's complex "the work must be as
was built as a response to lavishly decorated as
all the early-Baroque possible, using only
churches and chapels in the best and most resi-
the city. lient paints and pure,
41. Master Andrei Pelenichka unadulterated gold,
In the early 17th cen tu- St John the Evangelist. Miniature in the Gospel from the and must be richly
village of Grimno, Lvov Region. 1602
ry Lvov was home to a National Library of Russia, St Petersburg
executed on a good-
highly professional and quality priming and
fairly numerous community of Ukrainian pain- completed by the specified date. "25
ters. They created a distinctive style of icon-pain-
ting that is easily recognisable and can justifiably The iconostasis was dismantled in 1767 and
be called the "Lvov school". Though the artists replaced by a Uniate iconostasis; a few icons

43
42. The iconostasis. The Church of
St Cosmas and St Damian
in the village of Bolshiye Gribovichi, Lvov Region
remained in the Church of the Assumption, the
rest were used to create a new iconostasis for the
church of St Cosmas and St Damian in the villa-
ge ofBolshiye Gribovichi.
Because this generously financed iconostasis has
not survived in its original form, it is rather dif-
ficult to imagine how it originally looked.
Nevertheless, we know that the carved icono-
stasis followed a precise architectural plan: the
Deesis Row was composed of columned arcades
entwined with carved vines, whilst the Feast-
day Row took the form of a frieze, whose exqui-
site carved cartouches held icons such as "The
Old-Testament Trinity", "The Saviour Not
Made With Hands", "The Saviour Emmanuel",
and "The Burning Bush". The iconostasis was
the ceremonial centrepiece of the church. The
Brothers had obviously discussed with the artists
the composition of its icons and the ideological
framework of the ensemble, and they placed as
much importance on the overall theological
meaning as on the artists' skill. It can be assu-
med that individual icons, particularly those in
the Passion Row, served a polemical function:
to strengthen the position of Orthodoxy in its
struggle with Catholicism in the Ukraine. The
church's iconostasis therefore played a role simi-
lar to that of Ukrainian polemical literature of
the time.
Theodore Syenkovich was an artist of the transi-
tional period. He had a strong feeling for the
tastes and requirements of his age. Ukrainian
and foreign books decorated with engravings
introduced him and his colleagues to a new
repertoire of religious themes and new composi-
tional devices, and contact with artists of other
nationalities who lived in Lvov introduced him
to new genres and techniques of painting. Both
the sculpture in the round that had become an
integral part of the facade and interior of Lvov
architecture, and the secular genre of portrait-
painting, undoubtedly brought about huge
47
changes in the artists' conception of the func-
tion of the decorative arts.
But the icon-painter, though armed with a know-
ledge of secular painting, was extremely circum-
spect in his exploitation of the new opportunities
at his disposal. The Ukrainian school had its own
rules, which demanded adherence to the sym-
bols and imagery that gave it its Orthodox, natio-
nal character.
Mykola Petrakhnovich's additions to the icono-
stasis of the Church of the Assumption did not
imitate the work of his teacher. He had the bold-
ness of youth, particularly when it came to his
treatment of the "Passion", which was no longer
a single icon but a series of individual tableaux
forming a whole tier of the iconostasis. This had
the effect oflaying special emphasis on the "Pas-
sion" cycle-and not by chance: in the early 17th
century the Passion was a favourite theme of
Ukrainian literature and theatre, particularly the
so-called "school dramas", which drew a direct
parallel between the Gospel story and what was
happening in the real world; suffering and stead-
fastness in the struggle for faith was a highly topi-
cal theme at the time. Petrakhnovich was
perfectly aware of all this, and every one of his
works is in some way innovative. He undoub-
tedly borrowed heavily from German and
Dutch engravings, yet every tableau shows origi-
nality. Petrakhnovich is important above all as a
gifted colourist. He had an amazing sense of
colour, and was audacious in his juxtaposition of
different tones. He loved the combination of
pink, grey, and gold with vermilion and dark
blue, and would paint vigorous shades of orange
onto red drapings. In contrast to his teacher
Syenkovich, his painting was always spirited and
resolute.
Petrakhnovich's painting shows no signs of the
learned techniques of the craftsman: he approa-
ched each work in a new way. He enjoyed pain-
 45. Mykola Morokhovsky (?)
Christ Before Caiaphas. 1637-38
The Fraternal Church of the Dorrnition, Lvov

48
 46. Mykola Morokhovsky (?)
The Judgement of the Sanhedrin. 1637-38
The Fraternal Church of the Dormition, Lvov

49
 47. Mykola Morokhovsky (?)
Christ Before Herod. 1637-38
The Fraternal Church of the Dormition, Lvov

50
 48. Mykola Morokhovsky (?)
Christ Before Pilate. 1637-38
The Fraternal Church of the Dormition, Lvov

51
ting different types of costume, introduced rea-
lia into his icons, and used still-life motifs ("The
Washing of the Feet"). But in spite of these rea-
list features Petrakhnovich's icons are extremely
conventional. The undoubtedly erudite master
sometimes disappoints with the large size of his
figures' heads and his disregard of anatomy. He
sometimes makes bold use of linear and "reverse"
perspective, thus preserving the characteristic
traits of the icon. His work was also undoubted-
ly influenced by provincial icons, which reflec-
ted the tastes of the common man. There were
many provincial studios in the Ukraine, and they
influenced not only painting but also engraving.
As well as the iconostasis in the Church of the
Assumption, Lvov also still boasts the magnifi-
cent iconoscasis in the Church of St Parasceva
(first half of the 17th century). It is tall and slen-
der and has six tiers, crowned by a "Crucifixion"
framed by delicate gilded low-relief carving. It
observesa Renaissance sense of proportion. The
ceremonial decoration of the iconostasis is
enhanced by the ornamental gold-relief back-
grounds of the icons and the panels of the pre-
della or, which resemble precious fabrics.
Created slightly earlier than the iconostasis in
the Church of the Assumption, it expresses its
own ideological agenda. The church's two
icons of "St Parasceva" underline the signifi-
cance of chis saint for the citizens of Lvov: St
Parasceva was considered the patron saint of
trade. The theme of the Passion is illustrated
not just in its own row, but in the iconostasis's
central axis, which displays in ascending order
icons of "The Last Supper", "The Laying in
the Tomb", and the triumphal "Christ
Conquering Death Through Death" (a rare
theme in Ukrainian painting), set beneath the
"Crucifixion".
In the "Passion" cycle the artists were trying to
cell the Gospel story in a language that could be
53
easily grasped by every citizen of Lvov, by illus-
trating the different episodes against the familiar
backdrop of Lvov's stone mansions. Early icons
did not concern themselves with depictions of
interiors, and the trained eye can see how the
artists, whether by mistake or by design, have
violated the rules oflinear perspective. (The same
phenomenon can be observed in 16th-century
Dutch engraving.)
It is difficult to tell how many artists worked on
the icons for this iconostasis. The author of the
Deesis was obviously an experienced portraitist.
He displays a sound knowledge of the anatomy
of the body in movement, and had obviously
mastered the art of realist drawing. In spite of
the traditional character of the Deesis, it violates
the principle of representation: the interest in
human character and the humanise culture of
the time allowed the artist to endow each of the
apostles with a complex, multi-faceted indivi-
duality. The arcade that divides the apostles from
each other emphasises their state of contempla-
tion; engrossed in their own thoughts, they are
more like portraits than stylised ciphers. This
emphasis on the individualisation of the icon's
figures was a new phenomenon in Ukrainian
religious painting.
It would be incorrect to imagine that iconostases
of this type were a rarity. Paul Alyepski, the son
of Makarios III, Patriarch of Antioch, travelled
throughout the Ukraine in 1654 and wrote:
"The iconostases are breathtaking in their height
and gilding. The magnificent large altar doors
are carved in the round and gilded. "26 Icono-
stases were erected in both stone and wooden
churches, both large and small; a humble woo-
den exterior often hides an iconostasis of ama-
zing beauty, which gives the ascetic interior a
certain festive feel.
The little wooden Church of the Holy Spirit in
Rogatin, near Ivano-Frankovsk, is just such a
superficially unremarkable building. Beginning and the chubbyfaced angels are seated at a cove
in the late l orh century, the Rogatin Brothe red table laid with clear crystal goblets half filled
rhood, which like the Lvov Brotherhood had a with a rich, dark wine.
predominantly pettybourgeois membership,
played an important role in the town and fought As well as the central royal gates, most Ukrai
against clerical interference in its affairs. The nian iconostases also had a diakonikon (sou
Brotherhood took thern) door and a
an active part in the prothesis (nor
townspeople's resis thern) door. The
tance during the former often depic
nationalliberation ted Melchizedek,
war. the latter the
Archangel Michael.
In 1650 an iconosta In the 17th and ear
sis was erected in the ly l Sth centuries,
church. Extraordi the Archangel
nary care went mto Michael became a
the decoration. The favourite theme in
polychrome relief Ukrainian icon
carving of the lower painting and sculp
row is particularly ture; he was the
magnificent. The patron saint of the
columns between Cossack Host, and
the icons are entwi researchers have
ned with vines, whi rightly noted that
ch invade the icons' 51. The Church of the Holy Spirit. 1598 he embodied the
Town of Rogatin, IvanoFrankovsk Region
frames and even the ideal of the warrior
inside of the archi li berator. Artists
volt, blending har therefore dressed
moniously with the royal gates. The polychrome him in knightly armour and "armed" him with
carving, supported by the decorated panels of an avenging sword and a shield. The ''Archangel
the predella, gives the iconostasis a baroque cha Michael" on the pro thesis door of the Church of
racter. The icons themselves do not clash with the Holy Spirit appears utterly resolute, ready
their framing; they were painted by a member of either to smite or to defend. He commands our
the Lvov school, a master who obviously had a attention with his silver armour and green tunic
good understanding of the tastes and cast of covered by a scarlet cloak. The bravura baroque
mind of the predominantly pettybourgeois pathos of the figure jars somewhat with the pla
town, which are reflected in his work. The "Vir cid expression of his face, which reminds us of
gin Hodigitria" is a surprisingly kindly, lumines the angels in the "OldTestament Trinity" and
cent, benevolent matron, and in the radiates goodnessthe distinguishing feature of
"OldTestament Trinity" she is totally devoid of all the figures in the lower row.
any deep symbolical meaning. The action is
transcribed to a contemporary setting. Sarah is The rich and somewhat heavy appearance of the
wearing the dress of a Ukrainian petty bourgeois, lower part of the iconostasis is matched by the

54

52. The Virgin Hodigirria. Derail

 54. The Archangel Michael. 1650 55. Melchizedek. 1650
The Church of the Holy Spirit in the town of Rogatin, The Church of the Holy Spirit in the town
IvanoFrankovsk Region of Rogatin, IvanoFrankovsk Region

53. Melchizedek. Detail

 56. The Virgin Hodegecria. 1677
Museum of Folk Architecture and Daily Life, Kiev
figure of Melchizedek on the diakonikon door.
He was a symbol of the priesthood and the
Eucharist, which is why his image adorns both
the altar murals and the sculptured facade of
Lvov's Church of the Assumption. Melchizedek
was a popular figure in Ukrainian folk tales.
In the mid 17th centu
ry, iconostases were
also erected in the
churches of Drogoby
ch, which had been
restored after the natio
nal li bera tio n wars of
164854. The pride of
Drogobych was the
wooden Church of St
George, which had
been bought from the
neighbouring village of
Nadiyevo to replace an
old church that had
burnt down in 1499.
There was a Brothe 57. The Church of the Exaltation of the Cross.
Early l Sth century
rhood attached to the Town of Drogobych, Lvov Region
church, and its mern
bers spared no expense not just in "restoring" it
(as the Brotherhood's records describe the remo
val operation) but in supplying it with an icono
stasis. The painter responsible for most of the
work in the church was the master "Stephen the
Decorator, a priest's son from Myedyki", as he
signed his icons.
He supervised the work on the church's murals,
and was the author of most of the icons in the
iconostasis, with which the murals were thema
tically linked: the northern and southern walls
were decorated with the cycles "Our Lady of the
Akathistos Hymn" and "Christ of the Akathis
tos Hymn". On the predella, beneath the icons
of "The Virgin Hodigitria" and "Christ Panto
crater" respectively on the lower row, were depic
tions of "Our Lady of the Akathistos Hymn" and
59
"The Miracle of the Holy Apostle Paul on the
Island of Miletus" with the text of"Christ of the
Akathistos Hymn", both from 1659.
Stephen of Myedyki had connections with the
towns ofSanokand Lvov, but in 1650 he moved
to Drogobych, where
in the 1670s he pain
ted the murals and
icons for the Chapel of
the Nativity of St John
the Baptist in the
Church of the Exalta
tion of the Holy
Cross. He had a deep
knowledge of Kievan
printed books, lavish
ly illustrated with
woodcuts, and they
supplied him with the
motifs for some of his
paintings. His brush
transformed these
motifs, not just in the
sense that it reprodu
ced them in colour:
the rather coarse engravings were thoroughly
reworked. Stephen loved the icon's small dimen
sions, which allowed every detail of the head
and figure to be clearly traced. His potential as a
landscapist is obvious in "The Miracle of the
Holy Apostle Paul on the Island of Miletus",
and even more so in "The Flight of Lot from
Sodom and Gomorrah" in the north predella of
the iconostasis. He also demonstrated his know
ledge of landscape in his original frescos for the
Chapel of the Nativity of St John the Baptist on
the theme "Mary in Egypt" (1672).
His son Ivan may have been the author of the
marvellous icon "The Acts of the Archangel
Michael", painted in the 1670s for the iconosta
sis of the Church of the Exaltation of the Holy
Cross in Drogobych. The icon is an organic part
58. The iconostasis of the Church of the Exaltation of the Cross
1630s; 1735 Town of Drogobych, Lvov Region
 ,

60. Ivan Medytsky (?)

The Archangel Michael with Scenes of His Deeds. Second half of the 17th century
The Church of the Exaltation of the Cross in the town of Drogobych, Lvov Region

59. Ivan Medytsky (?)

The Archangel Michael with Scenes of His Deeds. Detail
of the iconostasis and its carved frame, which is
crowned by an archivolt with ionic capitals. Ivan
was proud that he was Stephen's son, and never
missed an opportunity to remind us of the fact
when he signed his works.
The icon of the late
17th and early l Sth
centuries cannot be
understood without at
least a general idea of
the artistic currents of
the time, when the
dominant style was
baroque. In Ukrainian
art it took a very speci
fic form. Although it
conformed to certain
norms of westEuro
pean art, it underwent
significant adaptation,
which gave rise to the
61. Ivan Rutkovich. Died 1703
concept of "Ukrainian
The Meeting on the Road to Emmaus. 169799
baroque", a style that National Museum, Lvov
achieved its purest
expression in literature and architecture. The
latter was characterised by a certain festive appea
rance, a dynamic fluidity of form, the pictorial
quality of the facades and silhouettes, the unex
pected effects of foreshortening, etc. The use of
sculpture on the facades of buildings, both three
dimensional and relief, gave them a particular
visual semantics. Individual buildings and even
whole complexes conformed to a set decorative
pattern. In addition to Biblical figures, there
were sculptures of characters from history and
mythology. Allegory became the favourite means
of selfexpression for both artists and architects.
It should be pointed out that in the Ukrainian
lands within Russia baroque naturally develo
ped and crystallised in interaction with Russian
art, whilst in the West it was influenced by
contacts with the art of Poland and Austria.
64
In the late 17th century one of the centres of
Ukrainian art was the town of Zhovkva. The
king of Poland Jan Sobieski (162496) had a resi
dence in the town, which contained an impres
sive collection of works of art. Amongst the
numerous painters who served the king and wor
ked on his palace in
Vilanova, near War
saw, was a Ukrainian
from Zhovkva, the
petty bourgeois Ivan
Rutkovich (d. 1703?).
A respected artist, he
carried out commis
sions at the behest of
the Sejm, and was a
popular figure in the
local Ukrainian com
munity. Ivan Rutkovi
ch had his own studio,
which carried out
commissions in both
Zhovkva and the sur
rounding area.
Several of the master's iconostases and indivi
dual icons have survived. The composition of
every Rutkovich iconostasis was always original.
In one of the earliest (168082), in the Church
of the Ascension in the Volhynian village of
Derevlyanskaya, he introduced a new tier
a "Pentecostarian" cycle of icons, illustrating the
miracles of Christ. The icoriosrasis's growing
complexity was a reflection of the baroque ten
dencies of the era. The work of the constellationof
talented pupils, teachers, and writers of the Kiev
Mogila Collegium exerted a huge influence on
Ukrainian art. Orthodox doctrines were expressed
in numerous stories by the Kiev intellectuals Joan
nides Galyatovsky (d. 1688), Lazarus Baranovich
(162093), and Innocent Gizyell (circa 160083).
The seventiered iconostasis in the Church of
the Ascension marks the next stage in the evolu
 62. Ivan Ruckovich (died 1703)
The Appearance of Christ to Mary Magdalene. 1680
National Museum, Lvov

65
 tion of the iconostasis; though altered, it still
retains the basic cycles which give it its concep
tual unity. The iconostasis gave the Orthodox
church a national character.

Rutkovich was a firstrate artist, and in the deco

rative scheme of the iconostasis he gave top prio
rity to the painting; rich and luscious, it is set off
to advantage by the baroque openwork carving
and the cartouches that frame the individual
icons. Even the figure of Michael on the prothe
sis door is framed by openwork carving. The
iconography of "The Appearance of Christ to
Mary Magdalene" on the predellasigned by
Rutkovich and dated 1680is unexpected for an
Orthodox church: Christ is depicted as a garde
ner, and his widebrimmed hat and the spade
over his left shoulder give him a totally secular
appearance, whilst the deftly painted landscape
makes the icon look like a secular painting.

The iconostasis created by Rutkovich between

1697 and 1699 for Zhovkva's Church of the
Nativity (and subsequently moved to the Chur ~
ch of the Nativity of the Virgin in the village of
SkvaryavaNovaya) is the master's finest work. It
is a dazzling monument to the many facets of
the man's talent: his irrepressible imagination,
the perfection of his craftsmanship, and his skill
as a painter. Every Rutkovich ensemble is unique.
He was very sensitive to the zeitgeist of his time,
and was undoubtedly influenced by the era's his
toricism, which by appealing to the past hoped
to strengthen faith in the future. Many history
books were published during this time, inclu
ding Innocent Gizyell's "Synopsis" (1674), the
first attempt at a general history of the Ukraine.
Baroque religious art strove to be topical, which
accounts for Rutkovich's inclusion of represen

63. Ivan Rutkovich (died 1703)

The Archangel Gabriel. 16971699
National Museum, Lvov

66
rations of the Great Prince of Kiev Vladimir and
the Byzantine Emperor Constantine in the ico
nostasis. It is no coincidence that the first Ukrai
nianhistory play, which was published soon
afterwards by Theophanes Prokopovich, was also
dedicated to Prince Vladimir.
they possess a latent movement and illumina
tion, and sometimes they fall in heavy folds,
sometimes they are light and limpid. His pain
ting is always inspired and spirited. There is a
vibrancy in Rutkovich's work that marks him as
an artist of the baroque era. But the icon, as a

64. Ivan Rutkovich (died 1703)

Christ in the House of Mary and Manha. 169799
National Museum, Lvov

Rutkovich's icons, like those of most of his
contemporaries, were heavily indebted to Dutch
and German engravings, which were popular in
the 17th century. Nevertheless, like any genuine
artist he used them as the foundation for works
that were truly original. He liked dramatic
action, which in his icons takes place in the coun
tryside or an interior. Every Rutkovich tableau is
filled with poetry, with a sense of joy or sorrow,
surprise or anxiety, dignified serenity or intense
expectation. Rutkovich's carefully drawn icons
conceal the quivering brushstrokes, which by
emphasising the essentials seem almost uninten
tionally to animate the figure and impart an
uncommon beauty to the drapings. The master
paid a great deal of attention to the drapings:
form of religious art, modified the "baroque
ness" of the painter: he is faithful to the conven
tions of the genre, and uses techniques such as
archaic reverse perspective and certain traditio
nal "formulas" for the depiction of the human
face. Rutkovich can be said to be the founder of
the "Zhovkva school", which left its mark after
his death in a whole series of ensembles, inclu
ding the iconostasis in Zhovkva's Church of the
Trinity (171820), attributed to Peter Petrakh
novich (circa 16801759).
Another remarkable Ukrainian artist associated
with Zhovkva was Father Job Kondzyelevich
(1667circa 1740). He was born in the town,
but worked for the most part in the Volhynian

67
monastery of Skit, near Manyava. Tucked away
in the Carpathian Mountains, Skit was at this
time (late 17th and 18th centuries) the last bul
wark of Orthodoxy in a region dominated by
the Uniate Church. The monastery was a staun
ch defender of Ukrainian national pride under
a foreign religious yoke; it had not accepted the
Union which had been foisted on the Ukrai
nian church. Skit valued its links with Kiev's
Monastery of the Caves, links which were not
severed even during the years of the Ukraine's
political fragmentation. The monastery's
importance and authority were confirmed by
the building of the wooden Church of the
Ascension, which was maintained by regular
donations from the Russian tsar Theodore
Alekseyevich (166182). Between 1698 and
1705, Kondzyelevich, "an unworthy monk", as
he would sign his work, built an iconostasis for
the church. We know more about this artist
than we do about many of his contemporaries,
yet there is still a lot in his life that remains
unexplained. He was a monk who had spent
his entire life in the Ukraine, yet his icons are
imbued with the spirit of the Italian school, in
both their style and their peculiar mysticism.
His figures are graceful and elegant, and their
faces seem to have been lifted straight from the
Italian masters; we still do not know who taught
him this style.
There is huge variation in the level of experi
mentation and innovation in the Ukrainian icon
of the second half of the 17th century, depen
ding on the artist, the tastes of his clients, and
the environment in which any given work was
created. Galician masters were highly thought of
throughout the westUkrainian lands ofTrans
carpathia and Volhynia; they were apprenticed
not just in Zhovkva and Lvov, but in small towns
such as Posada Rybotitskaya and Sudovaya Vish
nya. The lateTZthcentury icon "The Flight into
Egypt" from Cholm is the work of a master from
Sudovaya Vishnya.
68
In the 17th century Kiev regained its status as a
centre of Ukrainian art, thanks largely to Her
man Sagaidachni and Metropolitan Mogila. Its
ancient cathedrals were restored and decorated,
and new ones were built. lconostases were erec
ted. Archdeacon Paul Alyepski, the son of Maka
rios III, Patriarch of Antioch, visited Kiev in
1654 and was greatly impressed by the skill of
the Kievan painters and their talent as portrai
tists. In Kiev the portrait had become one of the
favourite genres of painting, which explains the
widespread popularity in the Ukraine of icons
containing portraits. They are particularly com
mon in icons of "The Protecting Veil of Our
Lady", but they can also be seen in icons of "The
Crucifixion", "The Exaltation of the Holy
Cross", and others. They depicted the church's
donors; sometimes they had a votive character,
sometimes they served as epitaphs. Icons some
times commemorated statesmen, but most often
Cossacks.
The late17thcentury "Crucifixion" from the
village of Alekseyevka near Poltava depicts the
Cossack general Leontius Svichki (d. 1699?).
The icon creates a strange effect: this layman
with an aquiline nose and Ukrainian topknot,
dressed in a red zhupan jerkin and red boots,
seems to take up almost as much space as the
figures of Mary and St John alongside him. With
its masterful combination of representational
and stylised features, the portrait of Svichki is an
artistic triumph. The icon has a certain imperti
nence: the proud, sterntempered man standing
unbowed before the Crucifixion is asserting the
social power of the Cossacks, without a trace of
submissiveness or humility.
The figure of Bogdan Khmelnitski in the
17th/early18thcentury icon "The Protecting
Veil of Our Lady", from the Church of the Pro
tecting Veil in the village of Dyeshki near Kiev,
looks altogether different. The legendary het
man is shown beneath Mary's veil, shielded by
67. The Crucifixion, incorporating a portrait of Colonel Leonty Svechka
from the town of Lubny (?). Late 17th century
National Art Museum, Kiev
68. The Intercession of the Virgin. Second half of the 17th century
National Art Museum, Kiev

69. The Intercession of the Virgin

e P t it o the Herman Bo dan Chmelnics .
her stole along with a group of clerics, the tsar, The Cossacks liked to dedicate their churches
and several women. The round, pink face is only to the Feast of the Protecting Veil of Our Lady. It
superficially that of the famous hero of the natio sometimes seems as if icons were painted merely
nalliberation wars; he is recognisable more from as an excuse to glorify the Cossack colonels. They
his costume and his trappings of power. All the look particularly striking when seen in the roo
characters in this solemn icon, of the westEuro my interior of a church, set off by a dynamic,
pean mater rruserrcor lavishly carved
diae type, are bowed in baroque iconostasis.
reverential genuflec The icons' ceremonial
tion. The icon in its feel is reinforced by the
present form is a late magnificence of the lay
17 thcentury work, men's formal costumes
repainted in the early and the richness of the
l Sth century. The clergy's chasubles, only
l Zrhcentury painter slightly dampened by
was a more talented, their monastic cassocks.
better trained artist But the most striking
than the painter who thing about these icons
"restored" the icon. is the sheer variety of
Khmelnitski's portrait types and characters
suffered particularly they depict, which are
badly during the often keen psychologi
repainting, either cal portraits. (For
because the Cossack example the early
in the "restored" ver !Sthcentury "Protec
sion is not Khmelnits ting Veil of Our Lady"
ki, or because the from the Church of the
original depiction did Protecting Veil in the vil
not correspond to the lage of Sulimovka, near
artist's image of the Kiev, and from the chur
hetman. To make ch of the same name in
Khmelnitski easily NovgorodSyeverski
recognisable, the near Chernigov.)
iconpainter gave him
70. The Exaltation of the Cross.
conventional stylised In the second half of
Late 17th early l Sth century
features and dressed National Art Museum, Kiev the 17th century and
him in the official first half of the 18th,
dress of a hetman. Researchers suggest that the both NovgorodSyeverski and Chernigov, once
Dyeshki icon was originally in the Church of the the capital of the celebrated Principality of Cher
Protecting Veil in Boguslav, where in 1654 nigov, played an important role in the cultural
Khmelnitski had his headquarters; it was in this life of the Ukraine. On the initiative of the Arch
church that he met with the archdeacon Paul bishop ofChernigov, the powerful politician and
Alyepski, the son of the Patriarch of Antioch writer Lazarus Baranovich (162093), a prin
Makarios III. tingpress was set up in NovgorodSyeverski,

74
71. The Intercession of the Virgin. Early l Sth century
National Art Museum, Kiev

72. The Intercession of the Virgin. Der

73. The Intercession of the Virgin. Early l Sth century
Museum of Architecture and History, Chernigov
which in 1679 was moved to Chernigov. The
ancient town's premongol churches and monas
teries were restored and new ones were built, and
in 1700 a Collegium was opened.
Between 1669 and 1676 a new iconostasis was
erected in the 12thcentury Cathedral of the
Assumption in the Yelyetski Monastery; its pri
de and joy was the miracleworking icon of Our
Lady ofYelyetsk, which gave the monastery its
name. Joannides Galyatovsky (d. 1688) devoted
a whole painting to the miracles attributed to
this icon. Even in the 17th century, he knew that
the cathedral's icon was a copythe l Zthccntu
ry original had been taken to Russia, where it
was often copied; the copy in the Cathedral of
the Assumption was acquired in the 17th centu
ry by the lay brother Constantine Mazopyeta at
a Moscow bazaar. The early18thcentury icon
reproduced in this book was undoubtedly pain
ted in Chernigov, as its representations of Cher
nigov's churches and monasteries betray a
firsthand knowledge of the local architecture.
In addition to portraits of concrete historical
figures, icons of this era often depict saints endo
wed with the features of their contemporary
"namesakes". The late17thcentury "St Anne"
icon from the Church of St John the Baptist in the
villageofMikhailovka, near Sumsk, is an example
of the art of the "Free Ukraine" region. Now sepa
rated from the iconostasisfor which it was created,
it worksas an independent portrait in its own right.
The author of the late17thcentury icon "Saints
Vladimir, Boris, and Gleb", from the church in
the Volhynian village of Ramo, is a less talented
artist, but in his depictions of the Russian princes
he, too, ignores their established iconography,
draping them in sumptuous zhupans to make
them look more like his clients.
At this time Kiev played a key role in Ukrainian
artistic culture. The art school of Kiev's Monas
79
tery of the Caves enjoyed a widespread fame both
within and outside the Ukraine. Like the Kiev
Mogila Academy (the Collegium had been gran
ted Academy status in 1701), it attracted pupils
from other countries, particularly from the Bal
kans. The school possessed numerous works for
the students to copy, including westEuropean
engravings and socalled Kunstbucher (art
books). It gave its pupils a broadbased training:
judging from its surviving archive of drawings,
it seems that every artist was expected to be
capable of working as a monumentalist, an easel
painter, a portraitist, and an iconpainter. He
had to be able to build altars and iconostases,
make sketches of carvings, know the recipes for
different enamels, etc. The school provided a
solid professional grounding: the pupils would
draw the human figure in various different poses
and from difficult angles, and would make sepa
rate studies of the head and body parts. Land
scapes, animals, birds, and ornaments would be
copied from models; only portrait sketches
would be painted from life. The pupils would
practice the art of iconpainting on wooden
boards, and of monumental painting on the
monastery's walls, pillars, and ceilings.
The hand of Kievan painters can be seen in
numerous icons found not just throughout the
Ukraine but abroad, in Serbia and Hungary,
where Ukrainians had their own studios, schools,
and apprentices.
An unprecedentT number of tall iconostases
were erected in the Ukraine, and their architec \
ture, carving, and icons reflect every stage of
Ukrainian baroqueearly, mature, and rococo.
An example of the mature style is the iconostasis
in the SaviourAssumption Church in the villa
ge of Bolshiye Sorochnitsy near Poltava, made
famous by Nicolai Gogol. The great writer was
born here in 1809, and was baptised in the chur
ch, which was built by the Ukrainian hetman
Daniel Apostol (16541734). Daniel picked a
 Idee der Ewigkeir des Menschengeschlechts, die Die Zeit der Allegorien hat ein neues Verfahren
<lurch den die Fassade uberziehenden Fries als Rei erfunden, das buchstablich die gortliche Aus
gen von stilisierten Frauen und Mannerfiguren srrahlung vermitteln konnte. Im Altertum wurden
(in der Poesie des Barack bedeuten sie auch Mars die goldenen Strahlen von oben aufgetragen. Die
und Venus) ausgedri.ickt wird. Kiewer Meister des 18. Jahrhunderrs (die Schop
Die Hauptidee des FaworskijLichtes ist jedoch in fer der Ikonostase waren mit Sicherheit Verrreter
der Ikonosrase selbst enthalten, die in der Vergol der Kiewer Schule) begannen, die Kleidung auf die
dung ihrer raffinierten goldenen und silbernen
Schnitzerei, dem reliefar Unrerlagen zu malen.
tigen Hintergrund der An den Stellen, die mit
Ikonen und mit ihren dem Griff des Pinsels
verzierten Umrahrnun ausgespachrelr wurden,
gen glanzt und flimmert. entstanden die beson
In die Motive der Schuit deren flimmernden
zerei der Ikonosrase ist Lichter. In den Bildern
vieles unmittelbar aus Christi und Marias gibe
der ukrainischen Nacur es keine Welrabgeschie
eingeflossen. Die D ppig denheit. Ihre freundli
keit der durchsichrigen c hen rundlichen
Flechten der Blumen, Gesichrer erscheinen
Blatter und der Sprossen nicht so sehr wohlge
wurde von den Kunst staltet, sondern eher
lern in der Absicht lebensfroh und voller
gestaltet, einen Lebens Mitgefohl for die Men
baum darzustellen. Aber schen und ihr irdisches
im Dberschwang der Schicksal.
Blumenvielfalt ist der 75. VerklarungChristiKirche. 1732, in dem Dorf Bolschje Auf den Ubergangeri
Weinrebe ein zu grofser Sorotschintsy (Region Poltawa) zwischen der Ikonosta
Platz zugeteilr warden, se und ihren Sei ten
so daR der Lebens abzweigungen sind die
baum unversehens die eher traurige Symbolbedeu Heiligen, die den Namen der Aufrraggeber Dani
rung des Kreuzbaumes Jesu Christi erhalt. Neben la Apostol und seiner Frau Uljana entsprechen,
dem Jubel und der Feierlichkeit zieht der Gedanke dargestellt. Es sind folgerichrig der Prophet Daniel
vom Leiden und insgeheim auch von der Sterblich und die Heilige Juliana.
keit ein hier und da sind Mohnkopfchen, Symbo Das Bild der Juliana hat portrathafte Gesichrszli
le des ewigen Schlafes, eingeflochten. Die Mehrheit ge,die denen der Frau des Hermans ahneln. Hier
der Mohnkopfchen siehr man auf den Darstellun hat der Maler geschickt das Irdische mit dem
gen der Heiligen, die den Namen von Danila Apos Cottlichen verbunden. Die Heilige Juliana hat )
tol und seiner Frau Uljana entsprechen. eine erwasphantastische Kleidung, ihr enrblofster
Die untere Reihe ist besonders reich rnit Schuit Hals ist mit einem vollig realen Kollier, die Ohren
zereien ausgestattet. Die Ikonen entsprechen mit Ohrsteckern, die Haare mit einem Diadem
ihrer Umrahmung rnit dem bravourosen Vollk geschmuckt, und Blumen liegen auf dem Barock
lang der Malerei. Die Gesichter der Gottes tisch. Gleichzeitig jedoch erfiillt die ganze Kom
mutter Hodegretia und des ChristusAllerhal position die konventionellen Bedingungen, die
ter sind besonders <lurch die reliefartig o rna for die Ikone unentbehrlich sind. Die sratrliche
mentierten goldenen Hintergri.inde hervorge Uppigkeit der Juliana und die hoffartige Halcung
hoben. Ihre Kleidung hat der Maler so ihres Kopfes stehen gleichermaRen mit der vor
dargesrellr, als ob sie ein goldenes und silbernes nehmen Dame wie mit der Heiligen in Wechsel
Glimmern ausstrahlren. beziehung.

81

74. Muttergottes Hodegetria. 1732.

IkonostaseTafel aus der VerklarungChristiKirche,
Bolschje Sorotschintsy (Region Poltawa)
 76. Heilige Juliana. 1732.
Bolschje Sorotschincsy (Region Polrawa)
 )

77. Der Prophet Daniel. 1732.

Bolschje Sorotschintsy (Region Poltawa)
Der Gedanke von der Eirelkeit weltlichen Stre
bens (das Barockthema vanitas) liege der Ikone
Prophet Daniel zugrunde. Der biblische Pro
phet hat niche die Cesichrszuge des 72jahrigen
Hermans. Der gleichnamige Heilige zeigt sich hier
niche nur als die Verkorperung des heroischen
Wesens des Hermans ein mutiger Krieger und
weiser Verwalter. Der Prophet Daniel bekraftigt
die Nichtigkeir der Welt. Das ist der Sinn der Trau
me, die er den Konigen Nebukadnezar und Belsa
zar deutete, dargestellt auf einer Papierrolle.
In mehreren Ikonen ist das Phantastische des
Handlungsortes mit der Welt der konkreten Rea
lien und mit den Portrats konkreter historischer
Personen bewundernswert kombiniert (Die Ein
fohrung Mariens in den Tempel, Himrnelfahrt
der Gottesmutter, Kreuzerhohung, Schutz
mantel der Gottesmutter). Die Ikonen erinnern
an die feierlichen Zeremonien unter Teilnahme
des Hermans und seiner aus Kosakenobrnannern
bestehenden Umgebung. Hier spurt man die
Hand unterschiedlicher Maler.
Nie zuvor schatzte man in der ukrainischen Kul
tur derart die Variationsbreite, die Virtuositat, die
Phantasie in der Entscheidung der Komposition
und den Erfindungsreichturn in den kunstleri
schen Mitteln. Man spurt formlich die Glatte der
Lasur und den breiten, impulsiven Pinselstrich,
bewundert die auf Gold gravierten Ornamente
und die flachigen Verzierungen auf den Drapie
rungen, erkennt das konventionelle idealisierte
Bild wieder und ahnt den Versuch, den kornpli
zierten psychologischen Charakter eines Men
schen darzustellen (zum Beispiel in der Prophe
tenReihe der Ikonostase). Und wenn schon im
Ensemble der Gedanke an die Verganglichkeit des
Lebens enthalten ist, dann wird der Ewigkeit niche
weniger ausgiebig Tri but gezollt.
Erwas anders sieht die Ikonostase aus, die fast um
die gleiche Zeit ( 1734) for die Kirche der Heiligen
Dreifaltigkeit uber dem Tor in der Kiewer Pet
scherskaja Lawra geschaffen wurde, aus. Sie ist
beherrschter in der Komposition, hat niche so viel
Goldschnitzerei. Die Ikonostase wurde in den
Innenraum der kleinen altrussischen Kirche des
12. Jahrhunderts eingebaut, die nach dem Feuer
in der Lawra im J ahre 1 718 neu ausgemalt wurde.
Dank dieser Bemalung hat sich die ganze kleine
Kirche verwandelt. Sie wurde mit prophetischem
84
Pathos gefollt, mit dem laut gesprochenen Gebet
und den Nachklangen der religiosen Dispute, die
in den zahlreichen Sujets, die die Sakristei, die
Gewolbe, die Wande, den Altar und die Saulen
bedecken, dargestellr sind. Die Ikonostase und die
Fresken sind der Liturgie untergeordnet und ent
falten sich vor dem Gemeindeglied in ihrer zeitli
chen Ausdehnung. Das Thema der Dreifaltig
keit, Hauptdogma des orthodoxen Glaubens,
klingt als bravourose Apotheose an und verbindet
die Ikonostase mit der Malerei der Kuppel, in der
sich die Neutestamentliche Dreifaltigkeit befin
det.
Die Zeit des Barock hat zur realistischen Form in
der Kunst auch den Geist der scholastischen All
wissenheit eingebracht: In der DreifaltigkeitsIko
nostase fehlt die Deesis, sie wird durch die Neu
testamentliche Dreifaltigkeit ersetzt. Die Figuren
von Chrisms mit dem Kreuz und Zebaoth auf der
grandiosen Ikone, gesegnet mit derTaube und mit
Muscheln voller Ruhmesworter, kronen die Korn
posi tion der Voraltarwand, sind voll des feier
lichen Ruhmes. Ihnen entspricht noch eine Dar
stellung der Alttestamentlichen Dreifaltigkeit in
der Reihe mit lokalen Bezugen.
Im 18. Jahrhundert andert sich der Charakter die
ser lokalen Ikonen. Die geschmackvollen Figuren
der Ikonen der "Gottesmutter mit dem Kind" und
"Predigender Chrisms" schweben aufWolken, die
von entzuckenden Cherubim getragen werden.
Die Reliefkartuschen mit den Initialen und Gir
landen, die sich auf ornamentierten, vergoldeten
Hintergrunden befinden, werden von winzigen
Putten getragen. Die Kunstler rnalten niche nur in
den Fresken und Ikonen begeistert Landschaften,
sondern auch auf die SesselStassidien und auf die
Kathedra. Die Handlung vollzieht sich in allen
Ikonen in einer Landschaft. Manchma~eheim
nisvoll und mystisch, manchmal poetiscli und von
Luft und Licht durchdrungen, gibe sie jeder Korn
\position eine ganz besondere Stimmung.
'Pie Monumentalmalerei und die Ikonen wurden
wahrscheinlich von den gleichen Meistern ge
schaffen. Sie waren Schuler einer Schule und haben
die Einheitlichkeit der Absicht des Programms gut
verstanden. Ihre Mehrstimmigkeit rnundete in
gemeinsamer malerischer Harmonie.
Der Seil des ukrainischen Barock war in der Male
rei ziemlich bestandig, vor allem dank der Kiewer
78. Alttestamencliche Dreifalcigkeic. 17341735.
Sudtur der Ikonostase der Dreifalcigkeicskirche im Mauerc
des Hohlenklosters Pecscherskaja Lawra, Kiew
Schule. In ihm zeigren sich die nationalen Formen die Ikonographie noch durch die bildlichen
der Kunst, die sie zu erhalten versuchten, und dies Strukturen des ausgehenden 17. Jahrhunderts. Die
auch noch, als in der Archirektur das Rokoko vom stilistische Entwicklung vollzog sich synchron in
Klassizismus abgelost wurde. den griechischkacholischen und in den ortho
Bemerkenswert sind zwei DoppelIkonen heiliger Mar doxen Ikonen. Es anderte sich der Seil der Ikone,
tyrerinnen vom Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts aus Kono niche aber ihr Wesen. Deshalb haben die Unierten
top. DieSrilisrikdesRokoko a~errsichinihren verlan und die Orrhodoxen die gleichen Gnadenbilder
gerten, etwas marueriert angebetet, wie zum
gebogenen Figuren und Beispiel die Ikone der
leicht geneigten Kopf Potschaewskaja Got
chen. Die heiligen Frauen tesmutter.
sind mit virtuoser Meis Die Hoffnungen der
terschaftgemalt. polnischen Regie
Einer der letzten rung und der Geisclich
Nachklange des Barock keir, das ukrainische
war die Ikonostase in der Bewulstsein mit der
VerklarungsHolzkirche Einfilhrung der Union
des Dorfes Beresna im zu denationalisieren,
Gebiec Tschernigow. haben sich niche erfilllc.
Die kreuzarcige 30 Michael Gruschewskij
Meter hohe Kirche, schrieb: Dadurch, dag
erbaut im Jahre 1759 die Unierce Kirche fak
von Meister Petr Sche tisch niche der Katholi
ludko, war das Meister schen Kirche gleich
werk der ukrainischen wurde ... ist sie bald zu
Holzarchicektur. Die einem ukrainischen
Kirche beherrschce das NatiorialAttribut in
sie umgebende Tal. Der der Westukraine gewor
nach oben geoffnete den und verwandelce
Innenraum war dank sich so in eine Nationa
der filnf Kuppeln voller le Kirche, wie es fruher
Licht, die wie in der Luft die orthodoxe war.
zu schweben schienen. Die Darstellung der
Die Ikonostase, unge Entwicklung der Ukrai
wohnlich in ihren Aus nischen Malerei ware
79. Heilige Paraskewa Pjatnitza. 1730.
mafscn, 17 Meter hoch unvollstaridig, wollce
Nationales Kunstmuseurn, Kiew
und 22 Meter lang, war man niche erwahnen,
der Stolz der Gemeinde. dag in der Ukraine im
In ihr wurden auch die fruher geschaffenen Ikonen Laufe des 17./18. Jahrhunderts eine groge Zahl von
benutzt: Der heilige Georg der Krieger vom Ende Werkstatten in der Provinz exiscierte, deren Pro
des 17. Jahrhunderts, Die chronende Gottesmut dukcion besonders bei den Bauern gefragt war.
ter mit den Erzengeln vom Ende des 17. Jahrhun Ihre Ikonen waren eher archaisch und traditio
derts und die bravourose rnajestatische Deesis aus nell. 0 bwohl sich die Verfahren der Malerei in
demJahre 1762. den zwei Jahrhunderten anderten, haben die
Manche Ikonen des 18. Jahrhunderts, die in die Meister selten in die Ikonographie eingegriffen.
sem Band abgebildet sind, wurden for die Die bescheidenen finanziellen Moglichkeiten sol
Unierten und GriechischKacholischen Kirchen cher Werkstatten und die begrenzte Menge des
geschaffen. Sie unterscheiden sich von den Farbangebots zwangen die Autoren, nach dekora
orthodoxen Ikonen derselben Zeit weder durch tiven Losungen zu suchen, die diesem bescheide

86
80. Die Marryrerinnen Barbara und Katharina. Mirte 18. Jh.
Nacionales Kunscmuseum, Kiew
 (

82. Die Marryrerinnen Juliana und Anastasia. Micce 18. Jh.

Nationalmuseum, Kiew

81. Die Martyrerinnen Juliana und Anastasia. Ausschnitt

nen Angebot entsprachen. In den Museen der Wolhynien vorhanden, etliche davon enrhalt
Ukraine sind eindrucksvolle Kollektionen solcher dieses Buch.
Werke zusammengestellt. Sie sind untereinander Der Bildband erhebt niche den Anspruch einer
verwandt durch die Weltanschauung der Maler, erschopfende Behandlung der erhaltenen Bestande
durch das Niveau ihrer Meisterschaft und durch der ukrainischen Ikonen des 11.18. Jahr
manches gemeinsame Verfahren, obwohl hinter hunderts, aber vielleicht verrnittelt er Anre
jedem Werk eine markance schopferische Indivi gungen, ihre Spezifik auf den Betrachter wirken
dualirat steht. Viele solcher Kunstwerke sind in zu lassen.

91
 AMNERKUNGEN
1. Uspenskij, I.A.: Bogoslowije ikonopotschitanija w posle ikono
bortscheskij period (Theologie der Ikonenverehrung in der Zeit nach
der Bildersturrnerphase), Westnik Zapadnoewropejskogo Patriar
schego Eksarchata, 1967, januarMarz, Nr. 57, S. 4749 (russ.)
2. Grabar, A.: L'art de la fin d'anriquire et du moyen age, Paris, 1968,
S.69
Lazarew, W.N.: lstorija wisanrijskoj shiwopisi (Geschichre der
Byzanrinischen Malerei), Moskau, 1968, Bd. I, S. 6182 (russ.)
3. Meyendorff, J.: Byzantium and the Rise of Russia. A Study of
ByzantineRussian Relations in the Fourteenth Century, New York,
1989,S.5
4. Rappoport, P.A.: Wneschnije wlijania i ich rol' w istorii drewne
russkoj architekcury (Die Rolle auBerer Einflusse in der Geschichte
der altrussischen Architekcur), Wizanrija i Rus', Moskau, 1989, S.
142 (russ.)
5. Gudzij, N.: "Slowo o zakone i blagodaci". Chresrornarija po drew
nej russkoj literature (Chresrornarhie der a!trussischen Literatur},
Moskau, 1938, S. 5960 (russ.)
6. Powest' wremennych let, (Novelle uber die vergangenen Jahre)
Pamjatniki literatury Drewnej Rusi, 10./natschalo 12. w.
(Literaturdenkmaler des Al ten Rufsland vom 10. Anfang 12. Jh.),
Moskau 1978, S. 167 (russ.)
7. Zhiwopis' domongol'skoj Rusi (Malerei der pramongolischen
Rus): Katalog, Moskau 1974, S. 5 (russ.)
8. Bytschkow, WW.: Malaja istorija wisanrijskoj estetiki (Kleine
Geschichte der Byzanrinischen Asthetik), Kiew, 1991,
S. 170 (russ.)
9. Demina, N.A.: Otrashenie poetischeskij obrasnosti w drewne
russkoj shiwopisi (na primere ikony "Georgij WoinXIXII ww.) (Die
Wiedergabe poetischer Bildhaftigkeit in der altrussischen Malerei
am Beispiel der Ikone "Georg, der Krieger", 11./12.Jh.), Drewne
russkoje iskusstwo: Chudoshestwennaja kultura domongol's koj
Rusi, Moskau, 1972, S. 724
10. Die Mehrzahl der Forscher ist der Ansicht, daB der Seil der lko
ne den Kiewer Mosaiken endehnr sei. I.E.Grabar datiert sie auf den
Anfang des 12. Jh. (Grabar,I., Andrej Rubljow). 3. Restaurations
ausstellung, ZGRM, Moskau 1927, S. 52, 58, 6265; Nekrasow,
A.I., Woznuknowenije Moskowskogo iskussrwa (Herausbildung
einer Moskauer Kunst), Moskau 1929, Bd. l.,S.203,209); Aina
low,D.W, Geschichre der russischen Monumenralkunst zur Zeit des
92
GroBfiirstenrums Moskau, BerlinLeipzig, 1933, S. 5661; Anto
nowa, WI. und N.E. Mnewa, Katalog drewnerusskoj shiwopisi
11./18. wekow (Katalog der altrussischen Malerei), GTG, Bd. 1, S.
1937 (russ.); Brjusowa, WG., K atriburzii proiswedenij shiwopisi
domongol'skogo "Jaroslawskogo Orama" ("Bogomacer' znamenie")
Drewnerusskooe iskussrwo 11.13. wekow (Zu den Attriburen der
Herausbildung der Malerei der prarnongolischen "Jaroslawer Oran
ta"), Altrussische Kunst des 11.13. Jh.), Moskau 1986, S. 7399
(russ.)
11. Nosanowa, N.W, Nekotorije itogi issledowanija fisicscheskimi
rnetodarni drenejschich russkich ikon. Drewnerusskoje iskusscwo 11.13.
wekow (Einige Quellen der Erforschung altrussischer lkonen mic
physikalischen Methoden. Altrussische Kunst des 11.13.Jh.), Mos
kau 1986, S. 166167 (russ.)
12. Die Ikone wurde aus Konstancinopel gebrachc, zusammen mic
der lkone "Gottesmutter Pirogoschaja", die niche mehr erhalten ist.
13. Kodjar, N.F., GalitzkoWolinskaja Rus' i Wisanrij w 12.13.
wekach Jushnaja Rus' i Wisantija (Die GalizischWolhynische Rus
und Byzanz im 12.13. Jh. Sudliche Rus und Byzanz), Kiew 1991,
S. 21 (russ.)
14. Ostrogorskij, G., lstorija Wisancii (Geschichce Byzanz') Beo
grad, 1969, S. 370 (russ.)
15. Popowas, 0.5., Galiczkowolynskije miniatjuri rannego 13.
weka: K woprosu wsaimootnoschenija russkogo i wisanrijskogo
iskusstwa. Drewnerusskoje iskussrwo. Chudoshestwennaja kulcura
domongol'skogo Rusi (Galizischwolhynische Miniaturen des fru
hen 13. Jh.: Zur Frage der Wechselbeziehung zwischen der russi
c
schen und der byzanrinischen Kunst. Altrussische Kunst. Die
ktinstlerische Kulrur der pramongolischen Rus), Moskau 1972, S.
283315 (russ.)
16. Ipatjewskaja letopis. Polnoje Sobranije russkich letopisej (Ipar
jewskijchronik. Vollsrandige Sammlung russischer Chroniken),
Moskau 1862, Bd. 2, S. 6767 (russ.)
17.Ebenda,S.6768
18. Meyendorff, J, a.a.O., S. 200226
19. Golubinskij, E.E., Istorija russkoj zerkwi (Geschichte der russi
schen Kirche), Bd. 1, S. 105 (russ.)
20. Ukrainska literatura 14.16. st. (Die Ukrainische Literatur des
14.16. Jh.), Kiew, 1988 (ukrain.)