Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Thomas C. Cooper
The Universityof Georgia,Athens
ABSTRACT Since idioms are figurative expressions that do not mean what they literally state
and since they are so frequently encountered in both oral and writren discourse, comprehend-
ing and producing idioms present language learners with a special vocabulary learning prob
lem. Idiom acquisition research, however, has uncovered a number of findings that have
pedagogical implications for idiom instruction. This article summarizes these research findings
and presents the language teacher with a systematic plan for teaching idioms to native lan-
guage learners, bilingual students, and foreign language learners.
-
In an effort to collect a sample of everyday, wins out, depending on which best fits the
colloquial American English, the author re- context of the phrase. The third model, pro-
cently taped three hours of television pro- posed by Gibbs (1986), claims that a literal
grams and transcribed the idioms that analysis of an idiom is rarely attempted, for
occurred. The taped material included sev- the figurative meaning is retrieved directly
eral popular soap operas. Even though actors from the mental lexicon. This model is re-
follow a script, writers attempt to create dia- ferred to as the direct access model.
logue that reflects informal, everyday speech. According to Cronk and Schweigert (1992),
Results of the transcription revealed that id- no clearly superior theory for idiom process-
ioms occurred at the rate of about three per ing has emerged, although support has been
minute, which is close to what Pollio found. mustered for each of the three models. Stud-
Some of the expressions were: to swim up- ies looking into the merits of each have inves-
stream, a sight for sore eyes, a close shave, a tigated some of the variables affecting idiom
wolf in sheep's clothing, a long shot, to get the learning and comprehension. These vari-
ball rolling, and far be it from me. The idioms ables, which will be discussed in more detail
were used in all types of plot situations in the below, include the age of the learner, the use
soap operas, and more often than not, under- of figurative language by teachers, linguistic
standing them was crucial to understanding characteristics of idiomatic expressions, de-
the plot. gree of contextual support, grouping idioms
according to thematic categories, and the role
How W e Process Idioms of native language interference in the acquis-
The sheer number of idioms and their high tion of target language idioms. The aim of this
frequency in discourse make them an impor- article is to review studies on idiom research
tant aspect of vocabulary acquisition and lan- and then to take the findings into account in
guage learning in general, and research on order to develop a systematic plan for teach-
how idioms are learned has gained momen- ing idioms in the classroom.
tum in the last two decades (Fernando 1996).
Currently, there are three competing hy- Research on Idioms
potheses about how we process idioms. The
first one, the literal first hypothesis, states that Age o fLearner
One of the variables affecting idiom acquisi-
two distinct modes of idiom processing exist. tion is the age of the learner. Young children up
One mode processes the literal meaning of to the age of about nine generally tend to inter-
an idiom phrase and is the normally active pret idioms (and other figurative expressions)
mode. The other mode, which processes the literally (Brinton, Fujiki, and Mackey 1985;Cac-
figurative meaning of an idiom, is normally ciari and Levarato 1989; Douglas and Peel
inactive and only becomes active when the 1979;Lodge and Leach 1975). This finding was
literal interpretation of the idiom is inappre obtained from experiments in which children
priate in the speech context." (Cronk and of different ages ranging from five to twelve
Schweigert 1992, 135) were asked to respond to story situations that
contained embedded idioms. For example,
In the second model, the simultaneous p r e subjects were presented with a story in the fol-
cessing hypothesis, idiomatic expressions are lowing format (Gibbs 1991,620):
stored in and retrieved from the mental lexi-
con as individual vocabulary items. When the It was the third time this week that Sam had
first word of the idiomatic phrase is encoun- come home late for supper. His mother was
tered, both the literal and figurative meanings getting very tired of this. "Are you going to be
of the idiom are processed at the same time. on time," she asked Sam, "or a m I going to
Either the literal or figurative interpretation have to put my foot down?"
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FOREIGN LANGUAGE A"ALS--SUMiUER 1998
When asked what the idiom "put my foot tonation that can assist in comprehension
down" means or when shown pictures por- (Lazar et al. 1989,426).
traying the literal and figurative meanings of
this idiom, children under the age of nine Characteristicsof Idioms
usually choose the literal interpretation. Research has shown that the linguistic char-
Lodge and Leach (1975,52829) point out that acteristics of idioms, such as their degree of
in children the "acquisition of idiomatic syntactic flexibility and the closeness between
meaning begins about the age of nine [and] their literal and figurative meanings, affect the
may signal the beginnings of [understanding] ease with which they can be acquired. Gibbs
the semantic duality which is often character- (1987) found, for example, that some idioms
istic of adult language." Piaget's theory of cog- cannot be syntactically transformed into the
nitive development offers an explanation for passive voice and still retain their figurative
older children's increased comprehension of meaning. For example, John kicked the bucket
figurative language, for with maturity, chil- cannot be changed into passive voice and still
dren become capable of engaging in the level retain the figurative meaning of John died. If
of abstract thinking required for processing rendered in the passive voice-The bucket
nonliteral language (Piaget 1959). was kicked by John-it must be understood
literally. The expression roll out the red carpet,
Use of Figurative Language by Teachers however, is syntactically flexible, for it retains
The mastery of idiom interpretation by chil- its figurative meaning regardless of the syntac-
dren is reflected in an increased use of figura- tic manipulations that are performed on it,
tive language by teachers in classroom e.g., We rolled out the red carpet for the king or
discourse. Lazar et al. (1989), for example, ex- The red carpet was rolled out for the king. Ac-
amined the frequency of occurrence of sev- cording to Gibbs (1987, 571), both children
eral types of figurative expressions in the and adults "process syntactically frozen id-
speech of 21 teachers in kindergarten to grade ioms faster than they do syntactically flexible
eight. The multiple meaning expressions expressions." Frozen idioms are learned more
(MMEs) included indirect requests (Do you quickly than flexible idioms because they are
know the capital of Spain?- as opposed to a heard more frequently in only one syntactic
direct request: Tell me what the capital of form rather than in several and are, therefore,
Spain is.); metaphors; similes; irony (Try again internalized as a single lexical item.
and see ifyou can do worse.);and idioms. The The metaphoric transparency of idioms
most frequently occurring type of MME was also relates to the ease with which they can be
the indirect request, which was used by teach- comprehended and learned (Brinton et al.
ers 27 percent of the time. Idioms occupied 1985 and Gibbs 1987). If an idiomatic expres-
second place but represented the only type of sion is transparent, there is a clearer and
MME to increase significantly @<.OOl)across closer relationship between the literal and fig
grade levels, so that by the eighth grade 11.5 urative meanings of the expression than with
percent of a teacher's utterances, or about a n opaque idiom. In the phrase Her words
one out of ten, contained idioms. Although were a slap in the Face, the figurative meaning
11.5 percent may seem like a small number of disappointment or insult is closely related to
compared to 27 percent, the researchers the literal meaning; however, it is difficult to
maintain that idioms occurring in this fre- see a logical connection between a literal in-
quency in teacher talk can seriously impede terpretation of John kept beating around the
comprehension if children interpret them lit- bush and the figurative meaning of John kept
erally. lndirect requests may constitute less of avoiding something because the relationship
a comprehension problem because of the between the literal and figurative meanings is
availability of nonlinguistic support, such as obscure or opaque. Research by Brinton and
reference to pictures, gestures, and vaned in- colleagues (1985) and Gibbs (1987) has indi-
257
FOREIGN LANGUAGE AALS--SUMMER 1998
cated that children younger than nine tend to groups of idiomatic expressions are: argument
opt for a literal interpretation of opaque id- is war, e.g., Ive never won an argument with
ioms when, after hearing a story containing an him; the mind is a machine, e.g., Boy, the
opaque idiom, they are asked to point to the wheels are turning now; and ideas are fash-
picture that best portrays the meaning of the ions, e.g., The idea of revolution is no longer in
idiom. vogue in the United States.
258
MlREIcN LANGUAGE ANNm-SUMMER 1998
most correctly were those that were fre- edge of grammar and a high level of vocabu-
quently used in everyday speech, were trans- lary attainment.
parent, and that had simple vocabulary and
structure. Teaching Idioms
Through a teacher's conscious effort, stu-
Summary of Research Findings dents can receive effective practice in com-
The principal findings of research studies prehending and producing idioms. The
on idiom acquisition are listed below. teaching suggestions and procedures that fol-
low have been designed to take into account
1) Children younger than nine years of age the research findings on idiom acquisition.
generally choose literal interpretations They are organized according to Gardner's
of idioms. The awareness that idioms must theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner
be understood figuratively begins around 1993) for diversifymg instruction so that all stu-
the age of nine. dents can be reached and given a chance to
2) Idioms that are syntactically frozen are eas- succeed in learning, not just those who excel
ier to learn than those that are syntactically in verbal and mathematical ability (Arm-
flexible. strong 1994; Campbell, Campbell, and Dickin-
3) Idioms whose meanings are metaphori- son 1996; Gabala and Lange 1997). The theory
cally transparent are easier to learn than of multiple intelligences provides a useful
those with opaque meanings. framework for creating and organizing a wide
4) Idioms are easier to comprehend if they range of instructional activities that will ap-
are given contextual support than if they peal to the language learning ability of stu-
occur in isolation. dents. Table 1 (on the next page) briefly
5) Many idioms can be categorized according defines the seven intelligences and c a t e g o
to underlying themes. rizes suggested idiom teaching activities that
6) Idioms are difficult for second language relate to each intelligence. Of course, the lin-
learners to comprehend and produce. guistic intelligence is the o n e that language
7)Second language learners make use of learners and teachers work with most, so all
their native language when processing tar- activities naturally fit into this category. Never-
get language idioms. theless, there are many learning activities that
tap into the other intelligences. These are out-
Idioms present a special problem for native lined below, for they present the learner with
and second language learners. In fact, N i p complementary ways to learn idioms.
pold (1991, 101) states that "there seems to be
no clear point in human development when it Teaching Suggestions
can be said that idioms have been mastered." Examples of specific idioms to illustrate the
Since idiomatic expressions are so frequently teaching suggestions that follow are given in
encountered in both spoken and written dis- English and German.
course, they require special attention in lan-
guage programs and should not be relegated I . Choosing Idioms
to a position of secondary importance in the A first step in creating an instructional p r o
curriculum. Idiomatic expressions are often gram is to select idioms to teach that students
left until last or are ignored in language class- will be able to learn with a minimum of diffi-
rooms, for they are difficult to learn and mas- cully.
ter for all groups of students, including young
native speakers, bilingual students, and for- A. Choose idioms that are frequently encoun-
eign language learners. Yet sooner or later, im- tered in the target language. A native speaker
precise idiomatic usage will cause difficulties can perhaps judge best whether a n expres-
even for a student with a n excellent knowl- sion is regularly encountered in contempo-
259
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANN-lJMMER 1998
TABLE 1
Summary Chart of Intelligences and Suggested Activities
For Teaching and Learning Idioms
Core Components Teaching Suggestions
Sensitivity to the sounds, Suggestion #2:
being word smart structure,meanings, and Discuss idioms and
functions of words and figurative speech
language Suggestion #7:
Nacherzahlung exercise
Suggestion # 11:
Idioms from TV shows
Sensitivity to, and capacity Suggestion #1:
I being logic smart to discern, logical or Choose idioms logically
numerical patterns; ability suggestion # 4
to handle long chains of Sort idioms into
reasoning thematic categories
Suggestion US:
Add-on story
Suggestion 112:
Paragraph completion
exercise with idioms
Capacity to think in visual Suggestion #5:
images and to recreate, Illustrate idioms to show
transform, or modify images the contrast between
figurative and literal
meanings
Suggestion # 9
Idioms from comic strips
Suggestion #lo:
Idioms from cartoons
Suggestion 614
Mobile of favorite idioms
Ability to control ones Suggestion #6:
being body smart body movements and to Act out the meaning of
handle objects skillfully idioms
Suggestion #15:
Make idiom board game
Muid- Ability to produce and Suggestion #16:
being music smart appreciate rhythm, pitch, Idiom jazz chants
melody, and timbre
Interpersonal- Capacity to understand Suggestion #3:
being people smart and respond to the moods, Define the social situations
temperaments, motivations, for the use of various idioms
and desires of other people Suggestion # 1 3
Interview classmates
Intrapemnal- Ability to assess ones own Suggestion #5:
beingselfsmart emotional life and to have Students can create a dictionary
knowledge of ones own of their favorite personal idioms
strengths and weaknesses and explain how the expressions
give insights into understanding
themselves
260
FOREIGN LANGUAGE A N N W U M M . . 1998
rary speech and writing, or whether it is r e mouth, and shake a leg. On the other hand,
served for very specific circumstances that a the expressions to spill the beans, a red her-
learner would rarely experience. ring, and to string someone along will be diffi-
To look toyour laurels (to protect your good cult for a learner and will require special
name) would be an infrequently used English explanations from the teacher before the stu-
idiom not worth the trouble to learn. dent can understand them.
A German idiom that would be difficult to
comprehend and learn is: Du bist wohl im D. At the beginning of an idiom teaching p r o
Calopp durch die Kinderstube geritten, mein gram, start with expressions that are identical
Cuter! (Friend, you must have galloped in the L1 and L2. Then add idioms that are
through the nursery = your manners leave a similar in both languages. Those that are very
lot to be desired). Besides being grammati- different will be the hardest for the learner
cally complicated, this expression is hard to and will require more practice time and ex-
understand because of the word play on planation.
Kinderstube, which means both "nursery" and Below are some German idioms arranged
a child's "upbringing." according to their degree of similarity to Eng
lish expressions.
B. Choose expressions that d o not present
special problems with vocabulary and gram- Identical idioms: Teach first
mar. Mit offenenAmen empfangen (to receive
Six of one and halfudozen of the other with open arms)
(two things are the same) would present Den Nagel auf den Kopf treffen(to hit the
problems to an ESOL learner because of its nail on the head)
extended length and complicated grammati- Ein Hundeleben fuhren (to lead a dog's life)
cal structure.
The German idiom, Mir ist eine h u s iiber Similar idioms: Teach second
die Leber gelaufen (A louse has run over my In die Luff gehen (to go into the air = to go
liver = I was very angry), is difficult to learn b e through the roof)
cause of complex grammatical aspects, such Aus einer Miicke einen Elefantenmachen (to
as the irregular verb of motion in the present make an elephant out of a gnat = to make a
perfect tense (ist.......gelaufen),the dative p r o mountain out of a molehill)
noun (mir), and the preposition iiber, which Jemandem ein Dom im Auge sein (to be a
in the sentence takes the accusative case thorn in someone's eye = to be a thorn in the
(uber die Leber) due to motion implied in the side)
verb laufen.Although this idiom is very color-
ful and might appeal to the determined Idioms that are dissimilar: Teach last
learner, most students will have more success D a s ist ein dicker Hund (that's a fat dog =
learning it after having mastered the grammar something unpleasant happens)
elements mentioned above. An effective way Jemandem die Wiimer aus der Nase ziehen
to control for grammatical complexity in the (to pull the worms out of someone's nose =to
selection of English idioms is to choose ex- worm a secret out of someone)
pressions that are syntactically frozen, for the AufDraht sein (to be on wire = to be on the
learner is faced with mastering only one ver- ball)
sion of the idiom. Schwein haben (to have pig = to be lucky)
26 1
IDREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS-SUMMER 1998
a discussion about metaphors, similes, and id- sion should also be pointed out. Idioms vary
ioms and the purposes they fulfill in speech in their degree of formality: some belong to
and writing. When dealing with young stu- the slang register (You got it);some are collo
dents whose native language is English or with quial in tone (He hit the nail on the head);and
ESOL learners who have some background in others fit best within a standard or formal con-
English, an effective way to introduce stu- text (The judge weighed the eoidence care-
dents to figurative language is to have them ful&).
read Amelia Bedelia books by Peggy Parish. An effective technique for developing in
Amelia is a ten-year-old girl who repeatedly learners an awareness that there is an appro
gets herself into trouble because she under- priate time and place to use every idiom in-
stands idioms literally and acts accordingly. volves the construction of situational vignettes
When told to Hit the road, for example, she in which the teacher briefly sketches a setting
picks up a stick and does just that. Young stu- that will elicit responses in the slang, collo
dents never fail to enjoy the humor in these sit- quial, and formal or standard speech regis-
uations. . ~ is an English example:
t e r ~Here
262
FOREIGN LANGUAGE A N N m - S U M M E R 1998
pairs, or in small groups, try their hand at c r e English Idioms Expressing Emotions
ating dialogues.
Anger
4. Diuiding Idioms into Categories a To be bent out o f shape
Dividing idioms into thematic categories To be fit to be tied
will make them easier to learn, for the student To be hot under the collar
can study them as groups composed of ele-
ments that have common features rather than Happiness
as lists of unrelated expressions to be memo- a To feel ones oats
rized. Both teacher and students can work t e To be in seuenth heaven
gether to set up the thematic groups. 0 To be on cloud nine
263
FOREIGN LANGUAGE A"ALS4UMMER 1998
be created to compare in a humorous way lit- the discrepancy between the literal and figu-
eral and figurative meanings of idioms. This rative understanding of expressions. The
was the approach followed by Kenyon and teacher can collect cartoons and have the stu-
her colleagues (1984) in working with hear- dents discuss the humor in them.
ing-impaired students who were having diffi-
culties in learning idioms. Kenyon reported a I I . Idioms from TVShows
higher rate of successful idiom recall for stu- Running lists of idioms can be compiled
dents who wrote, acted out, and videotaped from TV shows. Sitcoms are especially good
their own skits portraying selected idioms sources of colloquial idioms, and taped shows
than for students who explored the same id- can be viewed in class and discussed.
ioms through extended class discussion. A
kinesthetic approach for teaching idioms 12. Paragraph Completion
would, no doubt, be just as effective with sec- The teacher can write a paragraph or dia-
ond language learners for whom compre- logue containing an idiom in context, but the
hending and producing nonliteral language is idiom is omitted. Students then complete the
also problematic. passage with a phrase that fits the context.
Another dramatic activity is charades. In When this has been done correctly, the omit-
class, volunteers can be called upon to act out ted idiom can be given, and the students can
the literal meaning of an expression, and the be shown how they already inferred the id-
class must guess the figurative meaning. Play- iom's meaning from the context (ltujo 1986).
ing charades can also be turned into a game
between teams where the teacher passes out 13. Interview Classmates
note cards containing the idioms that are to ESOL students can interview their native
be acted out. speaker classmates to collect a list of the in- ex-
pressions that are currently being used. These
7. Nacherzahlung (retellin& Exercise can be discussed in class as to their meaning
The teacher creates and tells a story con- and appropriateness in a given situation.
taining several idioms. The students retell the
story or write it down as a Nacherzahlung 14. Idiom4f-the-DayMobile
(retelling) exercise, trying to use as many of The teacher can set aside classroom space
the expressions as they can. to post idioms that the students collect. There
can also be a spot for the Idiom offheDay. The
8. A d d a Story expressions can be made into mobiles that
Students tell an a d d m story. A list of idioms can be hung from the ceiling.
is written on the board, and the teacher starts
the narrative by using one of the idioms from 15. Idiom Board Came
the list. Students are then called upon to add The students can create a board game that
to the story by each contributing one sen- tests their knowledge of idiomatic expres-
tence containing a new expression. sions. Such a game might consist of a winding
road or path drawn on poster paper. The road
9.Discuss Idioms h m Newspaper Comic Strips would be divided into numbered segments.
Students select from a Sunday newspaper a Each segment would correspond to a note
comic strip that uses idiomatic language. card. On one side of the note card would be
They list the idioms on the board and then dis- an idiom; the other side would have a clue
cuss them. Often humor in comic strips results that helps the student to guess the idiom cor-
from a literal interpretation of idioms. rectly. (For example, How do you soy y o u k
really happy? Hint: You're high in the air! An-
10. Idioms in Cartoons swer: I'm in seventh heaven or I'm on cloud
Cartoons also employ humor resulting from nine.) Players would roll dice to travel along
264
the idiom path, and the winner would be the NOTES
first student to reach the end of the road. I The following are excellent childrens books
dealing with figurative language. They can be used
16. Idiom Jazz Chants with ESOL learners, too, who possess an inter-
Idioms can be practiced through a musical mediate knowledge of English.
approach involving jazz chanting. A jazz Gwynne, Fred. 1976. A Chocolate Moose for
chant is a rhythmic expression of the material Dinner. New York: Windmill Books.
to be learned that is sung, rapped, or chanted. Parish, Peggy. 1963. Amelia Bedelia. New York:
For example, here is a jazz chant of expres- Harper and Row.
sions for giving and receiving compliments in -. 1979. Amelia Bedelia Helps Out. New
English (Graham 1986,17). York: Avon Books.
Wood,Audrey. 1982. Quick as a Cricket. Singa-
You look wonderful today. pore: Childs Play Ltd.
So d o you. * The following dictionaries are good resources
You look wonderful today. for creating instructional materials. The Internet is
So d o you. also a good source for lists of idioms; these can be
Thats a nice color on you. found with help from the various search engines
Thanks a lot. such as Yahoo, the Web Crawler, and Aka Vista.
Thats a nice color on you. Makki, Adam, M.T.Boatner, and J.E. Gates. 1995.
Thanks a lot. A Dictionary of American Idioms. Hauppauge, NY:
Im glad you like it. Barrons Educational Series.
Griesbach, Heinz, and Dora Schulz. 1981. I000
Most idioms can be incorporated into a jazz deutsche Redensarten. Berlin: Langenscheidt Verlag.
chant format and practiced in a musical Standard language is the kind of vocabulary and
modality. Students can create the chants and usage that is taught in school and used in serious
even lead the class in the practicing. writing. It is more formal in style or register than
colloquial language or slang. It is what Joos (1961)
Conclusion labels consultahue style or the style of standard
Even though all groups of language stu- exchange between strangers. Colloquial language
dents may have difficulties understanding and is characteristic of, or appropriate to, ordinary or
learning idioms, it has been the authors ex- familiar conversation rather than formal speech or
perience that students are fascinated by these writing (Websters Dictionary 19941. Slang is also at
expressions and are eager to learn and prac- the informal end of the infomal-formal continuum,
tice them in class. Students seem to benefit but in addition, slang is used by members of a
most from a plan of instruction that incorpo- specific group for a humorous, often satirical effect,
rates a wide range of activities that appeal to and using slang expressions signifies membership in
the various intelligences, for they are given a that group: for example, college undergraduates or
greater chance to succeed in learning idioms high school teenagers Gghter 1994).
than with an instructional plan that is re- An excellent reference book for the German
stricted to only linguistic exercises. It is impor- teacher is Kontaktschwelle: Deutsch als Fremd-
tant that language students gain facility in sprache (1980), which lists along with key
using idioms in their oral and written dis- vocabulary and phrases topics that can be used for
course, since success in this area of language the construction of additional situational vignettes.
will generate confidence in the student and Topics include: Informationaustausch (= exchange
respect in those with whom he or she comes of information), Bewertung und Kommentar
in contact. (= comments and evaluation), Geliihlsausdruck
(= expression of feelings), Handlungsregulierung
(= modifying or adjusting actions), and soziale
Konuenhonen (= social conventions).
265
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