IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 19, NO.
1, MARCH 2004
Damper Cages in Genset Alternators:
FE Simulation and Measurement
Ahmad Darabi and Colin Tindall, Member, IEEE
AbstractThis paper describes an investigation of the function
and effectiveness of the damper cage in small salient pole genset
alternators. A time-stepping finite-element (FE) simulation is
described and its application to the damper circuit is validated
through the use of a specially manufactured rotor with wound
damper coils. Further validation is provided by comparison
of measured and predicted stator and main field quantities in
a standard machine when subjected to sudden application of
load. The simulation is then used to predict the performance of
the alternator with and without the dampers for balanced and
unbalanced load conditions. The effect of the damper circuit is
also investigated when a nonlinear, rectifier load is applied to the
machine with the modified rotor.
Index TermsAlternators, damper cage, finite elements, har-
monics, salient pole, synchronous machine, time stepping, tran-
sient.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE FUNCTION and effects of damper bars in small alter-
nators (e.g., up to 10 MVA), and especially those driven by
diesel engines, are significant and not well understood. Indeed,
with a few notable exceptions, serious treatment of the subject
[2], [5], [6], [9], [10] in the literature is remarkably sparse.
It is generally acknowledged that a damper cage reduces
the likelihood of instability during synchronization or rapid
changes in load and there are occasional references to its role
in suppressing the natural speed oscillation of a reciprocating
prime mover. Equally infrequent are references to the value
of a damper cage in reducing the harmonic content of the
generator voltage when an alternator is required to supply an
unbalanced [8] or nonlinear [7] load. This latter omission is
rather surprising in the light of the common and increasing use
of gensets with uninterruptible power supply (UPS).
Perhaps less surprising is the dearth of reference to the fact
that damper bars carry current even under steady state, linear,
balanced load conditions and that they thus contribute to the re-
duction of voltage harmonic content; presumably rotor iron loss
due to stator belt harmonics is likewise reduced at the expense
of copper loss in the cage.
Reasons for this lack of attention are not hard to identify. Until
recently, gensets were not commonly synchronized to the mains
Manuscript received October 12, 2001; revised March 1, 2002.
A. Darabi is with the Faculty of Electrical and Robotic Engineering, Shahrood
University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran (e-mail: Darabi_Ahmad@hot-
mail.com).
C. Tindall is with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Queens University of Belfast, Belfast BT9 5AH, U.K.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2003.819099
0885-8969/04$20.00 2004 IEEE
73
and operated in embedded mode, to use the modern parlance,
and nor was electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) a matter of
much concern.
From an analytical point of view, the method of mod-
eling alternators [1], using Parks equations, with simple linear
parameters and taking little or no account of harmonics due to
magnetic nonlinearity, slot ripple, and nonsinusoidal winding
distribution, was hardly likely to result in accurate prediction
of damper cage currents and function [11]. A more appropriate
technique is the use of finite-element (FE) methodology, which
forms the basis of an integrated design tool for analyzing
electrical apparatus. This tool, together with time stepping
techniques [3], [4], [8], [10], has been used for many machine
problems.
In the time-stepping approach, for the purpose of accuracy,
the meshes must remain unaltered during movement and a
slip surface in the middle of the air gap has been developed to
achieve this [4], [8]. The surface is subdivided into an equal
number of intervals whose length must always be less than the
movement associated with the smallest time step. The main
disadvantage of this approach is that in many applications, for
stability and accuracy of transient calculations, the time step
must often be very small which means very compact elements,
at least in the air gap between stator and rotor, to allow air
band movement. Particularly in small salient pole alternators,
with a compact structure and damper bars with relatively small
pitch, numerical instability is a very critical problem. On the
other hand, when externally coupling a circuit model to a
magneto-static FE package, tolerances, the remeshing process,
the size of the FE matrices, and the numerical iterative methods
used for the field solver strictly limit the number and size of
the meshes.
The comprehensive, nonlinear, FE, time stepping approach
proposed here for transient performance prediction, uses only
two meshes of the machine and these include the whole struc-
ture of the damper cage and all other elements of the alternator.
The time step used can be adjusted depending upon both in-
ternal and external parameters and may be much smaller than
the movement associated with two nodes on the slip surface.
After a brief explanation of the simulation method, this paper
presents an attempt at damper cage modeling and its function
during normal and transient step load, unbalanced, and non-
linear rectifier load conditions of a small alternator (31.5-kVA,
380-V, 50-Hz, four-pole, star-connected asymmetric concentric
winding with two series blocks of parallel coils in each phase).
Since measuring the currents in standard damper bars is not
convenient and testing the real machine without a damper cage
is impracticable, then for the purpose of assessing the validity
74
Fig. 1. Combined alternator, load, and bus model.
of the transient simulation and for comparison between ma-
chines with and without dampers, a specially designed rotor
with wound dampers, replaces the standard rotor.
A sample of predicted and measured currents and voltages
of the standard generator and the current in one of the damper
coils of the special rotor are presented and these confirm the va-
lidity of the simulation. The performance of the generator, with
standard rotor, for a transient balanced step load and for unbal-
anced load with and without damper bars is calculated. A few
test results of the alternator with the special rotor for transient
operation with a nonlinear, rectifier load are also presented and
the effects of the damper cage on generator performance under
various operation conditions are discussed. The complete sim-
ulation actually includes the rotor dynamics and possible speed
variation, but for all results presented here it is assumed that the
rotor speed is constant.
II. FINITE-ELEMENT AND TIME-STEPPING MODEL
The iterative method used in this paper is based on evaluating,
individually, each coil flux linkage, and the associated rate of
change, by FE field analysis of whole generator meshes. The
simultaneous differential equations of combined stator, load,
damper cage and field circuit models are then solved for each it-
eration of each time step. The method is general, but the two-di-
mensional FE (2-D FE) simulation is concentrated on four-pole,
salient pole machines with balanced and unbalanced loads and
also for synchronous operation in parallel with mains, which
may be unbalanced or contain harmonics.
Fig. 1 illustrates the electromotive forces (emfs), resistances,
and end leakage inductances of the stator windings with two
series blocks of parallel coils (one coil set located in the top
and other in the bottom of the slots) in each phase and a star-
connected load or main.
The field winding and a typical combination of damper bars
can be treated in a fashion similar to the stator with emfs in
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 19, NO. 1, MARCH 2004
Fig. 2. Circuit representation of field winding.
Fig. 3. Circuit model for damper cage.
series with resistances and end leakage inductances as shown,
respectively, in Figs. 2 and 3.
In order to reduce computing time for transient calculations
while retaining both stability and accuracy, automatic choice
of step length is recommended [12]; such step lengths usually
being very short. Implementation of this approach in conjunc-
tion with the moving air-band technique thus requires the use of
small elements in the air gap. However, with the magneto-static
software used here, the tolerances necessary, mesh generation,
and the size of the FE matrix and the numerical methods used for
field and circuit solvers impose limits on the number and size of
the meshes. In this 2-D FE study, therefore, only two meshes are
used to represent the generator, with two different relative po-
sitions of a pole axis and a stator slot opening and tooth being
provided through movement of the air band. One mesh is for
the instant when the center of a slot opening is on the pole axis
and the other when the center of a tooth is on the pole axis.
The reason for using whole generator meshes is to provide the
capability for studying unsymmetrical structures and windings
if required. The time step, used for sampling and one FE field
computation, is the time corresponding with rotation through a
half stator slot pitch .
It is assumed that the field voltage and other external param-
eters, the relative position of the rotor and stator and the stator
winding arrangement are known for any time and that the stator,
field, and damper bar currents are known at the beginning of
each time step . This allows static FE field solution and cal-
culation of the vector potential values at the center points of
each coil side and in the center of each damper bar. The fluxes
linking each coil of the stator winding, the field winding, and
the various bar combinations in the damper cage are then com-
puted.
For times and , the relative positions
of the stator and rotor are known but the values of the currents
in all sections of the generator are unknown. By using an initial
DARABI AND TINDALL: DAMPER CAGES IN GENSET ALTERNATORS 75

guess for these currents and by FE field solution at the new

positions, new flux linkage values for all coils and damper bars
are calculated.
At this stage, the real initial values of the linking fluxes for
each component at and the estimated values at
and are known. A set of second order
polynomials for these groups of three points is fitted and the
induced voltage for each component is computed. By adding the
induced voltages in each series group of coils, the total induced
voltage, as a function of time, for each group is obtained. The
time interval is suitably subdivided and by solving the state
space form differential equations for the load, bus, field, and
damper bar models, improved values of currents for times
and are estimated. This subdivision of Fig. 4. Rotor with wound dampers.
time can be chosen as any factor of the time step used for the
field solution, the value used in this paper being as little as 2%
depending on circumstances. The circuit equations are solved
with second order derivative accuracies.
To avoid instability, data are iteratively upgraded according to
an algorithm, based on error variation, which reflects the speed
of convergence or divergence. The whole procedure is repeated
with the improved current values until the difference between
two consecutive values falls within the given tolerance. The final
calculated currents in all coils for any time between three field
solution times will be real values and the final evaluated internal
voltages will be the best linear estimated values for this time
interval. By this simulation, the currents and voltages for all Fig. 5. Outline, mesh, and a sample of the flux lines with modified rotor.
coils are calculated directly for each time step, but the stored
energy is evaluated directly only at the time of field sampling;
for any intermediate instant it is then estimated by second-order replace the cage. One side of each coil is accommodated in the
curve fitting. The electromagnetic torque can then be calculated hole normally containing a damper bar while the other side lies
for any time, , as within a hollow shaft, all coils being connected together at the
ends as indicated in Fig. 3. The sum of the coil current within
the shaft will be zero and so the circuits and function of this
(1) structure will be virtually identical to the original, although less
effective due to the increased resistance and end leakage reac-
where tance. For the purpose of measurement, one end of each coil
electromagnetic torque at time (Nm); is brought out via a slip ring and Hall effect current transducer
rotor speed at time rad/s; before the common connection. The main field winding is also
electromagnetic energy stored in generator at supplied via slip rings.
time (J); For practical reasons, the rotor used in this study, shown in
voltage of coil or bar at time (V); Fig. 4, is not skewed, the effect of slot ripple on the stator voltage
current of coil or bar at time (A); waveforms thus being evident. The holes of the damper bars are
iron loss at time (W). also increased in diameter to facilitate damper coil winding.
The rotor speed can then be updated by
IV. BALANCED STEP LOAD, PREDICTIONS,
(2) AND MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 5 illustrates the outline, mesh, and a sample of the flux

where
inertia of rotating parts at time ;
mechanical torque at time (Nm);
friction and windage torque at time (Nm).
III. ROTOR WITH WOUND DAMPERS
The standard rotor has four salient poles with four damper
bars on each pole face. A copper plate connects all damper bars
at each end. By a little attention it can be perceived that 16 iden-
tical n-turn coils of an essentially toroidal nature can be used to
lines with the modified rotor and Fig. 6 shows predicted and
measured currents in one of the damper coils on one pole face
for a balanced step load condition with constant applied field
voltage. The load used is an inductive load with 0.8 power factor.
Fig. 6 displays good agreement between computed and mea-
sured values and is offered as validation of the simulation proce-
dure including dampers. Since the modified rotor is not skewed,
rotor cage currents at slot frequency are visible even under open
circuit conditions. After imposition of the load, the belt har-
monics are also evident.
76
0
Fig. 6. Calculated ( ) and measured () currents of one of the damper coils
with modified rotor.
Fig. 7. 0
Calculated ( ) and measured () field current with standard rotor.
Fig. 8. 0
Calculated ( ) and measured () a-phase voltage with standard rotor.
Fig. 9. 0
Calculated ( ) and measured () a-phase current with standard rotor.
In Figs. 79, the predicted and measured main field current
and a stator phase voltage and current of the standard generator
are respectively illustrated. As can be seen, the differences be-
tween all predicted and measured values are negligible except
for some divergence in phase, which is due to speed variation of
the dc motor drive during sudden load application. All of these
quantities are predicted or measured after imposition of the in-
ductive balanced step load on an initially, open-circuited ma-
chine with a separately excited field and no automatic voltage
regulator (AVR).
V. STEP LOAD WITH AND WITHOUT DAMPER CAGE
Under transient conditions, the currents in equivalent damper
bars in two neighboring poles are approximately equal in size
and opposite in sign. The trailing damper bar (called bar 3) near
the center of the pole carries the greatest current during the first
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 19, NO. 1, MARCH 2004
Fig. 10. Calculated transient currents in equivalent bars on two pole faces.
Fig. 11. Calculated transient current in bar 4.
0
Fig. 12. Calculated direct (top) and quadrature currents (below), with ( ) and
without () damper bars.
period of the transient. Predicted currents in this bar in two ad-
jacent poles are illustrated in Fig. 10, for imposition of an in-
ductive load. The bar (called 2) closest to the leading pole tip
carries least current.
Slot harmonic (900 Hz) and belt harmonic (mainly sixth har-
monic with a frequency of 300 Hz due to fifth and seventh har-
monic components) content of the transient current varies be-
tween bars, an example, for bar 4 adjacent to the trailing pole
tip, being shown in the zoomed oscillograph of Fig. 11. The ar-
mature magnetomotive force (mmf) due to circulating currents
in the parallel stator windings produces a negative sequence,
two-pole field. Since the rotor rotates at 25 r/s, the relative speed
is then 75 r/s and a component of this frequency can be seen in
the damper bar current of Fig. 11. The inclusion of damper bars
reduces the effect of asymmetric stator windings and this has
been observed by comparison of induced damper voltages com-
puted during open and closed damper cage simulations.
The components of predicted phase currents, circulating
currents in one block of two parallel coils, field current, stored
energy, and electromagnetic torque of the standard generator
with and without damper cage are presented, respectively, in
Figs. 1217 for comparison.
For the balanced load condition, the damper cage reduces
the component and increases the component of the stator
currents (Fig. 12). The damper cage increases the amplitude of
the circulating currents in the parallel coils of the stator, and
it also introduces an extra harmonic into these circulating cur-
rents (Fig. 13). The damper cage also reduces the amplitude of
DARABI AND TINDALL: DAMPER CAGES IN GENSET ALTERNATORS
Fig. 13. Calculated circulating currents in one block of two parallel coils with
0
( ) and without () damper bars.
Fig. 14. 0
Calculated field current with ( ) and without () damper bars.
Fig. 15. 0
Zoomed field current with ( ) and without () damper bars.
Fig. 16. 0
Calculated stored energy with ( ) and without () damper bars.
Fig. 17. 0
Calculated electromagnetic torque with ( ) and without () damper
bars.
the subtransient field current (Fig. 14) but introduces a slot har-
monic component for all conditions (Fig. 15). As can be seen
from the same zoomed oscillograph a belt harmonic is present
both with and without dampers. For balanced operation, at the
beginning of the transient period, the damper cage increases the
stored energy (Fig. 16). The instantaneous values of the iron loss
are estimated as a linear combination of the square of the coil
voltages. The torque is then computed by evaluating the instan-
taneous values of the output power and applying (1). Fig. 17
illustrates torque variation, after imposition of step load, both
with and without dampers. The output power and efficiency of
77
Fig. 18. Calculated transient currents in equivalent bars on adjacent pole faces
(unbalanced inductive load).
0
Fig. 19. Calculated field currents with ( ) and without () damper bars
(unbalanced inductive load).
0
Fig. 20. Calculated phase voltage with ( ) and without () damper bars
(unbalanced inductive load).
0
Fig. 21. Calculated three phase voltages with ( ) and without () damper
bars (unbalanced inductive load).
the alternator for no-load operation are zero and after imposi-
tion of the balanced step load, the output power trace is similar
to the torque trace (Fig. 17) and the instantaneous efficiencies
both with and without dampers rise to a value of approximately
0.9 and this remains almost unaltered during the transient.
VI. PREDICTED PERFORMANCE, UNBALANCED OPERATION
Performance predictions are presented here for the standard
machine, with and without damper cage, upon imposition of
an unbalanced step load. The machine is again separately ex-
cited, with no AVR, and initially in the open-circuit condition.
The load chosen, for severe imbalance, is as previously but with
a neutral connection and one phase disconnected. Figs. 1827
constitute a sample of the various predictions.
For unbalanced operation, the negative sequence component
of the stator currents introduces a significant second harmonic
into the field and damper currents (Figs. 18 and 19). This second
harmonic in the rotor induces a third harmonic in the stator coil
voltages. The presence of the damper cage is seen to reduce the
78
0
Fig. 22. Calculated phase currents with ( ) and without () damper bars
(unbalanced inductive load).
Fig. 23. Calculated d-q-o components (top, bottom, and center, respectively)
0
of the phase currents with ( ) and without () damper bars (unbalanced
inductive load).
Fig. 24. Calculated circulating current in one blocks of two parallel coils with
0
( ) and without () damper bars (unbalanced inductive load).
0
Fig. 25. Calculated stored energy with ( ) and without () damper bars
(unbalanced inductive load).
second harmonic in the main field (Fig. 19) and consequently
the third harmonic in the phase voltage. The harmonic content
of the generator voltage without dampers is much greater than
with dampers as can be seen in Fig. 20 with no need for presen-
tation of harmonic analysis results. The damper cage also acts to
improve voltage balance as can be seen in Fig. 21. Further illus-
tration of the effects of the damper cage is provided by consider-
ation of the phase currents and their dqo components (Figs. 22
and 23). The effects of the dampers on circulating currents in
the stator parallel paths are shown in Fig. 24, where dampers
are seen to introduce an extra harmonic component. For unbal-
anced load operation, positive and negative sequence field com-
ponents due to the unbalanced circulating currents produce 25-
and 75-Hz voltages across open damper bars.
In general, the damper cage acts to reduce the cyclic variation
of the stored energy and iron loss (Figs. 25 and 26). However,
the double frequency oscillation of output power and the corre-
sponding electromagnetic torque cannot be reduced by any sig-
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 19, NO. 1, MARCH 2004
0
Fig. 26. Calculated iron loss with ( ) and without () damper bars
(unbalanced inductive load).
0
Fig. 27. Calculated electromagnetic torque with ( ) and without () damper
bars (unbalanced inductive load).
0
Fig. 28. Measured field currents with ( ) and without () damper coils
(resistive load).
0
Fig. 29. Measured currents in damper coils 1 ( ) and 3 () on one pole face
(resistive load).
nificant extent although a slight difference in the average value
is evident (Fig. 27).
VII. MEASURED PERFORMANCE, RECTIFIER LOAD
The damper cage has a distinct effect on generator perfor-
mance with nonlinear loads. By using the modified rotor, many
experiments for nonlinear operation have been conducted to in-
vestigate the effects of a damper cage on generator performance.
A few test results, with and without the wound damper coils, are
presented here.
The measured transient field current for a step rectified resis-
tive load, with and without presence of dampers is illustrated in
Fig. 28. As with a linear load, the damper cage reduces the am-
plitude of the first peak of the field current but has somewhat less
effect on the significant sixth harmonic component also evident
in Fig. 28. This harmonic is almost entirely due to the fifth and
seventh time harmonics of the stator currents, introduced by the
rectifier load (Fig. 31). A sixth harmonic current is also present
DARABI AND TINDALL: DAMPER CAGES IN GENSET ALTERNATORS
0
Fig. 30. Measured currents in damper coils 2 ( ) and 4 () on one pole face
(resistive load).
0
Fig. 31. Measured phase current with ( ) and without () damper coils
(resistive load).
0
Fig. 32. Measured phase voltage with ( ) and without () damper coils
(resistive load).
0
Fig. 33. Measured phase voltages with ( ) and without () damper coils
(inductive load).
in the damper coils (Figs. 29 and 30), which acts to attenuate
the same harmonic in the field and then the fifth and seventh
harmonics in the stator voltage (Figs. 32 and 33).
The damper coils are seen to have beneficial effects in re-
ducing harmonic content in the phase voltages but these are
much more significant when a standard damper cage with much
lower resistance and leakage reactance is employed.
VIII. CONCLUSION
The modeling technique described is accurate and can be used
for analysis of alternator performance in virtually any operating
mode. The assumptions are made here that rotor speed and main
field voltage are constant but the authors are in the process of in-
cluding the brushless exciter, AVR, and diesel engine dynamics
into the model, which will then be used for system and com-
ponent optimization. The FE simulation has been assessed as
79
a component of the whole system model and despite the com-
plexity of the various subsystems and interaction between them,
there is little evidence either of instability or error.
The FE field solution and circuit equations are handled sepa-
rately and only two meshes are employed. Further investigation
will indicate the number of the meshes required to minimize
computational time and how the circuit equations may be in-
cluded directly into the FE matrix. It is clear that fewer slots
per pole and more precise representation of slotting will require
more than two meshes.
A large number of experiments and simulations for normal
and fault operation of the alternator have been conducted to
assess the effect of damper bars on generator performance.
The use of a special manufactured rotor with wound dampers
allowed measurement of damper winding currents. The close
agreement between these and values predicted, for this modi-
fied machine, served as validation of the modeling technique
described here. Prediction of the performance of a standard
machine, with and without dampers, was then performed with
enhanced confidence, for various load conditions. The modified
machine was similarly employed for measurement of perfor-
mance, with and without damper coils. Some of the results
have been presented here, and especially those concerned with
harmonic attenuation with unbalanced and nonlinear loads,
a function of dampers that may be of more importance than
mechanical damping.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Many thanks are due to Leroy Somer Ltd. and F. G. Wilson
Eng. Ltd. for their support of this work, providing details and
equipment. The authors also wish to acknowledge the Ministry
of Science, Research and Technology of Iran, Shahrood Uni-
versity of Technology, and Queens University of Belfast, who
provided the facilities of this study.
REFERENCES
[1] N. N. Hancock, Matrix Analysis of Electrical Machinery. New York:
Pergamon, 1974.
[2] R. L. Stoll and N. A. M. Abbas, Measurement of eddy-current
damping of small synchronous generator with two types of cylindrical
solid rotor, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. C, vol. 138, no. 3, May 1991.
[3] E. Vassent, G. Meunier, and G. Reyne, Simulation of induction machine
operation using a step by step finite-element method coupled with circuit
and mechanical equations, IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 27, pp. 52325234,
Nov. 1991.
[4] N. A. Demerdash and P. Baldassari, A combined finite element-state
space modeling environment for induction motors in the ABC frame of
reference: The no-load condition, IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol.
7, pp. 698709, Dec. 1992.
[5] J. Matsuki, T. Katagi, and T. Okada, Slot ripples in the damper windings
of a salient-pole synchronous generator, IEEE Trans. Energy Conver-
sion, vol. 9, pp. 126134, Mar. 1994.
[6] W. Vetter and K. Reichert, Determination of damper winding and rotor
iron currents in converter- and line-fed synchronous machines, IEEE
Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 9, pp. 709716, Dec. 1994.
[7] S. Williamson and A. F. Volschenk, Time-stepping finite element anal-
ysis for synchronous generator feeding a rectifier load, in Proc. Inst.
Elect. Eng., vol. 142, Jan. 1995.
[8] S. I. Nabeta, A. Foggia, J.-L. Coulomb, and G. Reyne, Finite element
simulations of unbalanced faults in a synchronous machine, IEEE
Trans. Magn., vol. 32, pp. 15611564, May 1996.
[9] S. I. Nabeta, A. Foggia, and J.-L. Coulomb, Finite element analysis of
the skin-effect in damper bars of a synchronous machine, IEEE Trans.
Magn., pt. 2, vol. 33, pp. 20652068, Mar. 1997.
80 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 19, NO. 1, MARCH 2004

[10] F. Deng and N. A. Demerdash, Comprehensive salientPole syn-
chronous machine parametric design analysis using time-step finite
element-state space modeling techniques, IEEE Trans. Energy Con-
version, vol. 13, pp. 221229, Sept. 1998.
[11] J. P. Martin, C. E. Tindall, and D. J. Morrow, Synchronous machine
parameter determination using the sudden short-circuit axis currents,
IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 14, pp. 454459, Sept. 1999.
[12] S. L. Ho, W. N. Fu, and H. C. Wong, Application of automatic choice of
step size for time stepping finite element method to induction motors,
IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 33, pp. 13701373, Mar. 1997.
Colin Tindall (M96) was born in Doncaster, U.K., in 1939. After serving an en-
gineering apprenticeship with British Railways, London, U.K., he received the
B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, New-
castle, U.K.
Currently, he is a Lecturer and Senior Lecturer in electrical machines at
Queens University of Belfast, Belfast, U.K., where he has worked on many
projects in the power generation industry. His research interest and consultancy
activities include applied electromagnetics, electrical machines, and power
generation. He also has a particular interest in the design, control, and operation
of gensets.

Ahmad Darabi received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Tehran
University, Tehran, Iran, in 1989, and the M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering
from Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, in 1992. He received the Ph.D. de-
gree with the electrical machine group at Queens University of Belfast, Belfast,
U.K., in 2002.
Currently, he is a Lecturer in the Faculty of Electrical and Robotic Engi-
neering, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran, since 1993. His
research activities are in design, modeling, and manufacturing of miniature elec-
trical machines and generating sets.