See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314160852

Short Term Monitoring of Forest Road

Pavement Degradation Using Terrestrial Laser
Scanning

Article March 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2017.02.045

CITATION READS

1 57

8 authors, including:

Serdar Akburak Murat Demir

Istanbul University Istanbul University
14 PUBLICATIONS 26 CITATIONS 49 PUBLICATIONS 328 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

tozturk@istanbul.edu.tr Tolga Ozturk

Istanbul University
24 PUBLICATIONS 95 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

nsansz Hava Aralarnn Orman Yollarnn Projelendirilmesinde Kullanm Olanaklar View project

Litter Decomposition and Seasonal Changes of Soil Microarthropods and Microbial Activity and
Nutrient Return in Soil in Black Pine (Pinus nigra Arnold.) Stands in ankr Region View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Murat Demir on 21 March 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Measurement 103 (2017) 283293

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Measurement
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/measurement

Short term monitoring of forest road pavement degradation using

terrestrial laser scanning
Mustafa Akgul a,, Huseyin Yurtseven b, Serdar Akburak c, Murat Demir a, Hikmet Kerem Cigizoglu d,
Tolga Ozturk a, Mert Eksi e, Anl Orhan Akay a
a
Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Construction and Transportation, Turkey
b
Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Surveying and Cadastre, Turkey
c
Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Soil Science and Ecology, Turkey
d
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Civil Engineering Department, Turkey
e
Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Degradation on the forest roads have an important factor for the traffic safety and the safe drive of the
Received 17 November 2016 vehicles. The aim of the study is to determine accurately the degradation rate of the pavement with high
Received in revised form 18 January 2017 precisions, exposed to deformation by meteorological conditions in the short term, on the forest roads
Accepted 25 February 2017
using with ZF 5010C Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS).
Available online 1 March 2017
Road surface model results which are obtained from areal comparison digital surface model show that
maximum swelling and collapsing values occurred on depth of (0.00)(0.01) and (0.00)(
0.01) during
Keywords:
between November 2015 and April 2016. According to result of volumetric analysis of digital surface
Terrestrial laser scanning
Road surface model
models, maximum net gain volume was calculated as 32.50 m3 (73.70%) in JanuaryDecember, while
Road deformation net loss was calculated maximum
30.24 m3 (61.67%) in DecemberNovember. Volumetric degradation
results are compared with meteorological factors. According to comparison it was observed that degra-
dation and sediment production from forest roads surface is related to total rainfall.
Our results revealed that Terrestrial laser scanner can be used effectively in measurement of degrada-
tion. Additionally, 1 cm resolution is sufficient in terms of accuracy of evaluation. Also, registration and
geo-referencing is one of the most important factors for accuracy of surface model.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Currently there are two different approaches to collecting and

Rutting is a main problem road surface on the forest road.
Because water collects in this ruts and subjects the pavement to
ponding and freezing eventually causing the pavement to deterio-
rate [1]. However, pavement degradation is the most important
factor for traffic safety and safe drive of the vehicles [2].
Pavement degradation will be affected from meteorological fac-
tors, traffic payload, maintenance application, pavement structure
and the other factors (Fig. 1) [3].
Deformation on road surface will be increased depending on
pavement structure in low volume forest road. Forest road serve
different function for managing forestry activities [4]. One of this
activities is timber harvesting. For that reason, different heavy
vehicles operate on forest road to haul wood based forest products.
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: makgul@istanbul.edu.tr (M. Akgul).
monitoring pavement degradation [5] (Table 1). Manual data col-
lection method is employed in many countries.
Traditionally, several researchers have studied with rutting
method which is one of the manual methods for measurement
and observation of the forest road pavement degradation [69].
This method requires slow and low precise data [1012].
Recently, automated data collection methods became wide-
spread with the development of technology and remote sensing
methods on pavement degradation [1316]. One of this methods
is the laser scanning technique which has recently become more
and more popular for a wide range of applications because of its
capability to acquire a lot of information with a high degree of
detail in relatively short time [17]. Nowadays terrestrial laser scan-
ners (TLS) can be used in several areas such as reverse engineering
application [18] documentation of cultural heritage [1921], geo-
logical survey [22], deformation measurement/calculation [23],
Pavement roughness evaluation [24], analyzing of road profile
[25], and analyzing of road roughness [26].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2017.02.045
0263-2241/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
284 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293
Fig. 1. Factors, and interactions, which can affect pavement performance [3].
Table 1
Comparison of automated and manual pavement data collection methods [5].
Automated data collection method
Time Reduces data collection times
Safety Much safer means of collecting data
Objectivity Objective measurements
Cost Very expensive equipment costs
Data size Vast amounts of data collected & stored depending on capacity of equipment
Data Not subject to transcription errors
handling
Employers Suitable in agencies seeking to downsize number of employees
Coverage May cover footprint of data collection vehicle
Terrestrial laser scanners main advantages are high speed data
capture, non contact data capture, acquisition rates (several thou-
sand points per second) allowing very high resolutions, high preci-
sion (centimeter), easy acquisition, measures range: cm-km [27].
The most important advantage of the using TLS method is that a
very high point density can be achieved, in the order of 510 mm
resolution [28]. Considering these advantages and especially col-
lection of data with high precision, TLS technique has become
widely used for monitoring pavement degradation in highway
engineering applications [29].
Forest roads should have a stabile pavement permanently for
safety harvesting as well as safe drive for vehicles. For this reason,
high-cost maintenance and renewal works take part in periodic
forest road maintenance and repair works.
The aim of the study is to determine accurately the degradation
rate of the pavement with high precisions, exposed to deformation
by meteorological conditions for six months between October
2015 and April 2016, on the forest roads using with ZF 5010C
phase based Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS).
2. Material and method
2.1. Study area
The research field determined as the subject of the study is the
northern plot of Istanbul University Education Research and Prac-
Manual data collection method
Longer data collection times
Personnel at risk collecting data
Usually subjective since it depends on experience of personnel
Relatively less expensive
Agencies may only be able to collect smaller amounts of data at a time
Subject to transcription errors
Source of employment for rating staff
Inspectors can cover entire width of road section relatively easier
tice Forest close to Sariyer, Istanbul. The research field is at Thra-
cian side of Marmara Region, between 28590 1700 29320 2500 east
longitudes and 41090 1500 41110 0100 north latitudes according to
Greenwich. In this study, a forest road (no: 001) was selected in
Istanbul University Education Research and Practice Forest
(Fig. 2). The road no. 001 is classified as Normal Type-B forest road.
Total length of forest road is 530 m while road platform width is
4 m. Road has composed six horizontal curves. Minimum curve
radius is 10 m and maximum curve radius is 15 m.
2.2. Data acquisition and post processing of point cloud data
Workflow steps executed at the stages of processing of data and
analysis are presented in the following diagram (Fig. 3).
TLS measurements were completed with phase based scanner Z
+F Imager 5010C on super high mode. It can reach an accuracy of
0.4 mm at distance of 25 m and it is able to acquire to 1.016 million
pixels/s (Fig. 4, Table 2).
All raw scans were registered by using Z+FLaserControl V8.6.0
commercial software. Registration was performed by using fixed
and portable targets (Fig. 5). An average of 2 fixed target and 6 por-
table targets was used at between two scan stations. Portable tar-
gets were just used for registering point cloud data and distributed
around road pavement. There were no portable target located on
the road surface to prevent data losses. Fixed targets were used
as reference points for georeferencing and registering of monthly
 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293 285

Fig. 2. Location map of the study area.

Fig. 3. Data processing workflow stages.

acquired point cloud data. These targets were fixed permanently to
the tree trunks around road for guarantee the spatial accuracy and
integration of periodically acquired data.
In the process of coordinating of the fixed targets to the
National Cartographic Coordinate System, two-stage measurement
network were established. First step is building of ground control
points (GCP) with NRTK GNSS on the road surface and at the sec-
ond step using of these GCPs with total station for coordinating
the fixed targets. With this process, fixed target coordinates were
obtained as UTM ED1950 coordinate system. Approximately
20 m horizontal distance between two-scan stations were adopted
in this research and TLS is installed at 2 m height at each scan sta-
tion. This pattern gives the minimum point density at 10 m, where
is the midpoint of the two scan station.
286 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293

Fig. 4. Scanning equipment of Z+F 5010C.

According to the factory data of the terrestrial laser scanner sys-

Table 2
tem which is used in this research (ZF5010C), the angular resolu-
Technical specification of laser scanner.
tion is 0.018 (vertical and horizontal) at Super High mode,
Laser class 1 which provides a distance of 0.0164 m between the two points in
Beam divergence <0.3 mrad
the point cloud data at a distance of 10 m from the single scan sta-
Beam diameter approx. 3.5 mm @ 0.1 m
Range 187.3 m (unambiguity interval)
tion in the horizontal plane. Theoretically at 10 m distance (mid-
Minimum distance 0.3 m point) from two scan station, resolution should reach twice the
Resolution range 0.1 mm value of single scan station. So, which point to point distance
Data acquisition rate max. 1.016 million pixel/s expect to should be 0.0082 m in registered point cloud data at
Linearity error 1 mm
10th meter between two scan stations.
Range noise Black 14% Grey 37% White 80%
Range noise, 10 m 0.4 mm rms 0.3 mm rms 0.2 mm rms After the geo-referencing, noise data were reduced by applying
Range noise, 25 m 0.6 mm rms 0.4 mm rms 0.3 mm rms filter algorithm. In filtering stage three filtering rules were used,
Range noise, 50 m 2.2 mm rms 0.8 mm rms 0.5 mm rms which are thin filter (distance = 0.001 m), range filter (Parame-
Range noise, 100 m 10 mm rms 3.3 mm rms 1.6 mm rms ter = from 0.5 m to
1 m) critical compensation. Finally, out of
road surface point cloud data was cleaned manually (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5. Registration screen of point cloud data.

 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293
Fig. 6. Noise filtering of road surface data.
2.3. Road surface model (RSM) generation and degradation analysis
After cleaning of raw point cloud data, bare road surface point
cloud was obtained. At this stage average point to point distance
was obtained as 0.004 m on the road surface. In accordance with
the study goals, point cloud density is extremely high to process
and point to point distance is variable. Gridding is easiest solution
to eliminate these factors. The choice of grid resolution is related
with the many different factors such as point density, spatial
accuracy of points, size of the area, processing power of computer,
preferred locational accuracy (specified in the technical agreement
of the institution), geometry of point patterns, complexity of
terrain, cartographic standards, and gridding technique [30,31].
In order to prevent the data heterogeneity and ensure easy pro-
cessing, monthly collected TLS point cloud data were transformed
to raster road surface model (RSM) at 0.01 m grid resolution. This
resolution is coarser than the input data density. Interpolation
techniques generally use the values at unsampled locations for
estimation [32]. Therefore, interpolation was considered as super-
fluous for gridding in this research. At the stage of transform point
cloud data to raster RSM, minimum binning approach was
preferred in order to maximize spatial accuracy or minimize the
RMS error.
After production of seven-month raster RSM, degradation
data were generated for every two consecutive months.
Degradation data generation procedure is a basic GIS analysis.
In two consecutive months, raster RSM data were subtracted
from each other and obtained data classified for desired scalar.
October 2015 RSM data was accepted as a starting point or base
and six months degradation change data was produced with
this GIS procedure. All GIS analysis was performed by using
ArcGIS 10.0 GIS software. Raster calculator tool was used to
generate surface degradation data, and cut and fill volume tool
was used to generate volumetric degradation data. This entire
processing and analysis works were conducted on workstation
287
computer which has 32 core 2.6 GHz processor and 64 GB
Ram running with Windows 8 Enterprise and 64-bit operating
system.
Weather data was continuously recorded at the adjacent
weather station at the Green Roof Research Site located in Istanbul
University Faculty of Forestry. Weather data was measured by an
automated weather station (DeltaOhm HD2003 Three axis Ultra-
sonic Anemometer, Delta OHM S.r.L., Padova/Italy, measurement
accuracy 1 C) and precipitation measurements were collected
using a rain gauge (DeltaOhm HD 2003 tipping bucket,
measurement accuracy 1%). Climate norms of Bahcekoy Sariyer
region between 1974 and 2004 (TMS Local) and climate norms of
Istanbul between 1950 and 2015 (TMS Istanbul) were obtained
from the Turkish State Meteorological Service National Weather
Service.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Results of elevation model
Within the scope of the study, generation of surface model is
the most important stage. Aruga et al. [33] studied with Airborne
LIDAR data based DEM for estimating low-volume forest road
earthwork volume. They also suggested that, high-resolution
DEM is useful in calculating accurate earthwork volumes. Akay
and Sessions [34] emphasized that computer aided calculations
with high resolution DEM potentially increase accuracy and perfor-
mance of road design. In this study, TLS-derived forest road surface
models (RSM) were generated for seven-month duration on the
monthly basis. 1 cm resolution raster RSM was obtained. Minimum
Root mean square error (RSME) was obtained as 0.0015 m while
maximum RSME was obtained as 0.008 m for each months in reg-
istration and georeferencing stage. And also average RSME value is
0.0051 m. When our results compared with previously studies,
288 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293

Fig. 7. TLS based derived RSM data.

 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293 289

800.00

600.00
Area (m2)
400.00

200.00

0.00
< -0.02 (-0.01) (-0.02) 0.00 (-0.01) 0.00 - 0.01 0.01 - 0.02 >0.02
Collapsing value Swelling value
November 2015-October 2015 (m2) December 2015 -November 2015 (m2)
January 2016-December 2015 (m2) February 2016 - January 2016 (m2)
March 2016 - February 2016 (m2) April 2016 - March 2016 (m2)

Fig. 8. Swelling and collapsing values of road surface.

accuracy of RSM (1 cm resolution) will be assessed as reliable and
sensitive for monitoring road.
According to DSM data, minimum z value was calculated as
173.972 m on February 2016, while maximum z value was calcu-
lated as 227.172 m on December 2015 (Fig. 7).
3.2. Results of surface degradation
Areal calculation of comparison DSM results were listed in
Table 3 and Fig. 8. Table 3 was divided to two rows as swelling
and collapsing for monitoring degradation. And also both swelling
and collapsing rows were showed in three different degradation
depths for perception of differences (<
0.02; (
0.01)(
0.02);
(
0.01)0.00; 0.000.01; 0.010.02; >0.02).
According to total results of November to April DSM, maximum
swelling value was calculated as 675.26 m2 at the depth of 0.00
0.01 m in AprilMarch. Minimum swelling value was calculated
as 71.59 m2 at depth of 0.010.02 m in JanuaryDecember. Also,
maximum collapsing value was calculated as 646.13 m2 at the
depth of 0.00(
0.01) meters in JanuaryDecember and minimum
collapsing value was calculated as 108.95 m2 at depth of (
0.01)
(
0.02) meter in MarchFebruary (Figs. 8 and 9, Table 3). Maxi-
mum swelling and collapsing values are observed between 0.01
0.00 and 0.00(
0.01) meters in six months.
3.3. Results of volumetric degradation
In the study, volumetric comparison analysis of road surface
was performed by monthly. In this context net loss and net gain
values between November 2015 and April 2016 were listed in
Table 4 and Fig. 9 depending on monthly degradation.
According to result of volumetric analysis of digital surface
models, maximum net gain volume was calculated as 32.50 m3
(73.70%) in JanuaryDecember, while net loss was calculated max-
imum
30.24 m3 (61.67%) in DecemberNovember (Figs. 10 and
11, Table 4).
Our results indicated similar sediment production and
degradation compared with those of former studies. Demir et al.
[35] state that the sediment mass can vary with the amount of
water moving through the road, or it can be exported indepen-
dently of the surface runoff. On the other hand, Reid and Dunne
[36] reported that a heavily used road contributes 130 times as
much sediment as an abandoned or a paved road; along which
cut slopes and ditches as only sources of sediment, it yields less
than 1% as much sediment as a heavily used road with a gravel
surface.
3.4. Comparison of volumetric degradation depending on
meteorological results
According to meteorological data minimum average tempera-
ture was measured on January while maximum was measured
on November. Maximum total precipitation was measured on Jan-
uary while minimum was on November (Table 5).
This study, observed to degradation and sediment production
from forest roads surface is related to total rainfall (Fig. 12 and
Table 5). Similarly, Luce and Black [37] reported that total rainfall
effects of time, traffic density, rut formation are important for sed-
iment production and degradation. Also, Ramos-Scharrn and
MacDonald [38] state that sediment production from unpaved
roads was significantly related to total rainfall, road segment slope,
and roads being graded or no graded.

Table 3
Comparison of swelling and collapsing areas of road surface.

Depth November 2015 December 2015 January 2016 February 2016 March 2016February April 2016March
values (m) October 2015 (m2) November 2015 (m2) December 2015 (m2) January 2016 (m2) 2016 (m2) 2016 (m2)
Collapsing value
<
0.02 279.52 123.25 332.00 163.93 108.95 144.47
(
0.02) 199.95 151.71 298.72 183.69 161.21 117.13
(
0.01)
(
0.01) 376.22 389.51 646.13 615.17 731.75 547.77
0.00
Swelling value
0.000.01 385.73 497.14 292.95 550.73 476.70 675.26
0.010.02 218.56 263.32 71.59 114.75 107.80 139.91
>0.02 266.02 301.08 84.60 97.72 139.58 101.46
290 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293

Fig. 9. Comparison of road surface (m).

Table 4
Result of net gain and net loss by monthly.

Months Net gain Net loss Unchanged

Volume (m3) Area (m2) Area (%) Volume (m3) Area (m2) Area (%) Volume (m3) Area (m2) Area (%)
November 2015October 2015 14.07 855.22 49.55
14.40 870.07 50.41 0 0.71 0.04
December 2015November 2015 8.07 660.68 38.28
30.24 1064.42 61.67 0 0.90 0.05
January 2016December 2015 32.50 1272.11 73.70
6.10 453.15 26.25 0 0.74 0.04
February 2016January 2016 11.81 961.28 55.69
7.96 763.29 44.22 0 1.43 0.08
March 2016February 2016 9.62 996.84 57.75
12.39 727.50 42.15 0 1.66 0.10
April 2016March 2016 13.22 808.90 46.87
9.60 915.40 53.04 0 1.70 0.10
 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293 291

40.00
30.00
20.00

Volume (m3)
10.00
0.00
-10.00 November - October - January - February - March - April -
-20.00 October November December January February March
-30.00
-40.00
Month

Net Gain Net Loss

Fig. 10. Volumetric comparison by monthly.

Fig. 11. Volumetric analysis of road surface.

292 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293

Table 5
Meteorological data.

Year Months Mean temperature (C) Total precipitation (mm) Relative humidity (%)
2015 November 5 84.3 83.8
October 5 56.00 83.8
December 6 87.30 79.4
2016 January 3 130.10 82.8
February 6 63.40 79.9
March 5 35.60 77.6
April 6 40.60 75.6

140
Variable
Precipitation
120
Net Loss
Net Gain
100

80

60
Value

40

20

-20

-40
November-October December-November January-December February-January March-February April-March
Month

Fig. 12. Comparison of volumetric degradation with total perception.

4. Conclussion and suggestion
In this study, it is aimed to monitoring the forest road pavement
degradation with Terrestrial Laser Scanner in winter season with
high precision. For this purpose, TLS measurements were com-
pleted between November 2015 and April 2016 by monthly.
It was observed that results obtained from areal comparison of
DSM results, maximum swelling and collapsing values occurred on
depth of (0.00)(0.01) and (0.00)(
0.01) during between Novem-
ber 2015 and April 2016.
According to volumetric analysis of road surface data results,
volumetric degradation analysis will be used effectively with Ter-
restrial laser scanner data on determination of values forest road
degradation.
Results, show that terrestrial laser scanner can be used effec-
tively in measurement of degradation. Also, 1 cm resolution is suf-
ficient in terms of accuracy of evaluation. The higher resolutions
increases the real world representation of the virtual model. This
method which can provide measurement results more sensitive
compared with traditional method can be obtained with objective
and high sensitive results on forest road pavement.
Also, results showed that registration and geo-referencing is
one of the most important factors for accuracy of surface model.
Long term monitoring with TLS studies like this study, error of data
comparison results will increase depending on spatial accuracy of
registration and geo-referencing. Fixed ground control points can
provide spatial integration of periodically acquired data.
Also our results, cleaning of noise data such as leafs, shrubs etc.
in point cloud data for generating bare forest road surface is impor-
tant and time consuming process in comparison with highways.
And TLS-derived forest road surface model with 1 cm resolution
was sufficient for the identification and determination of degrada-
tion areas. However, considering results and data precision of Ter-
restrial Laser Scanner is an effective method in monitoring
pavement degradation.
Acknowledgements
This paper is supported by the Scientific and Technological
Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) with the grant number
214O214.
References
[1] H. Wang, Development of Laser System to Measure Pavement Rutting,
University of South Florida, 2005.
[2] M. Akgul, H. Yurtseven, S. Akburak, M. Demir, K. Cigizoglu, T. ztrk, M. Eksi,
Terrestrial laser scanning based pavement degradation monitoring in the
winter season, in: 1st International Symposium of Forest Engineering and
Technologies (FETEC 2016), Bursa, 2016, p. 21.
[3] S. Tighe, R. Haas, J. Ponniah, Life-cycle cost analysis of mitigating reflective
cracking, Transp. Res. Rec.: J. Transp. Res. Board (2003) 7379.
[4] M. Demir, M. Hasdemir, Functional planning criterion of forest road network
systems according to recent forestry development and suggestion in Turkey,
Am. J. Environ. Sci. 1 (2005) 2228.
[5] N. Attoh-Okine, O. Adarkwa, Pavement Condition Surveys-Overview of Current
Practices, Delaware Center for Transportation, University of Delaware, Newark
(DE, USA), 2013.
[6] V. Ciobanu, V. Alexandru, S. Saceanu, Degradation forms of forest gravel road
roadways under heavy vehicles used in timber transport, Bull. Transilvania
Univ. Brasov Ser. II. Forest. Wood Ind. Agric. Food Eng. 5 (2012) 3742.
[7] M. Nasiri, S.A. Hosseini, M. Tafazoli, M. Sohrab, The role of logging operation on
rut development in hyrcanian forest roads, J. Appl. Biol. Sci. 6 (2012) 711.
[8] M. Nasiri, S.M. Hojjati, Designing geometric specifications of main access road
and its effect on pavement rutting, Ann. Biol. Res. 3 (2012) 24912499.
[9] C. Saceanu, Forest roads degradation in correlation with traffic characteristics,
in: Proceedings of the Biennial International Symposium, Forest and
Sustainable Development, Brasov, Romania, 1920th October 2012,
Transilvania University of Brasov, 2013, pp. 133138.
 M. Akgul et al. / Measurement 103 (2017) 283293
[10] S.M. Bogus, J. Song, R. Waggerman, L.R. Lenke, Rank correlation method for
evaluating manual pavement distress data variability, J. Infrastruct. Syst. 16
(2010) 6672.
[11] H. Cheng, X. Jiang, J. Li, C. Glazier, Automated real-time pavement distress
analysis, Transp. Res. Rec.: J. Transp. Res. Board (1999) 5564.
[12] K.C. Wang, Designs and implementations of automated systems for pavement
surface distress survey, J. Infrastruct. Syst. 6 (2000) 2432.
[13] K. Chang, J. Chang, J. Liu, Detection of pavement distresses using 3D laser
scanning technology, in: Proceedings of the 2005 ASCE International
Conference on Computing in Civil Engineering, 2005, pp. 1215.
[14] Q. Li, M. Yao, X. Yao, B. Xu, A real-time 3D scanning system for pavement
distortion inspection, Meas. Sci. Technol. 21 (2009) 015702.
[15] K.C. Wang, W. Gong, T. Tracy, V. Nguyen, Automated survey of pavement
distress based on 2D and 3D laser images, 2011.
[16] J.Y.-C. Tsai, F. Li, Y.-C. Wu, A new rutting measurement method using emerging
3D line-laser-imaging system, Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol. 6 (2013)
667672.
[17] C. Castagnetti, E. Bertacchini, A. Capra, M. Dubbini, Terrestrial laser scanning
for preserving cultural heritage: analysis of geometric anomalies for ancient
structures, in: Proceedings of the FIG Working Week, 2012.
[18] S. Larsson, J. Kjellander, Motion control and data capturing for laser scanning
with an industrial robot, Robot. Auton. Syst. 54 (2006) 453460.
[19] F. Ergincan, U. Avdan, Advanced technologies for archaeological
documentation: patara case, Sci. Res. Essays 5 (2010) 26152629.
[20] D.D. Lichti, S.J. Gordon, T. Tipdecho, Error models and propagation in directly
georeferenced terrestrial laser scanner networks, J. Surv. Eng. 131 (2005)
135142.
[21] N. Yastikli, Documentation of cultural heritage using digital photogrammetry
and laser scanning, J. Cult. Heritage 8 (2007) 423427.
[22] S. Dunning, C. Massey, N. Rosser, Structural and geomorphological features of
landslides in the Bhutan Himalaya derived from terrestrial laser scanning,
Geomorphology 103 (2009) 1729.
[23] A. Abelln, J. Calvet, J.M. Vilaplana, J. Blanchard, Detection and spatial
prediction of rockfalls by means of terrestrial laser scanner monitoring,
Geomorphology 119 (2010) 162171.
View publication stats
293
[24] M. Barbarella, M. De Blasiis, M. Fiani, M. Santoni, A LiDAR application for the
study of taxiway surface evenness and slope, ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Rem.
Sens. Spatial Inform. Sci. 2 (2014) 65.
[25] A. Chin, M.J. Olsen, Evaluation of technologies for road profile capture, analysis,
and evaluation, J. Surv. Eng. 141 (2014) 04014011.
[26] J. Wambold, L. Defrain, R. Hegmon, K. Macghee, J. Reichert, E. Spangler, State of
the art of measurement and analysis of road roughness, Transp. Res. Rec. 836
(1981) 2129.
[27] S.W. Mrics, P. Clegg, R. Jones, Combining terrestrial laser scanning, RTK GPS
and 3D visualisation: application of optical 3D measurement in geological
exploration, in: 7th Conference on Optical 3D Measurement Techniques,
Vienna, 2005, pp. 35.
[28] S. Slob, R. Hack, 3D Terrestrial Laser Scanning as a New Field Measurement and
Monitoring Technique, Engineering Geology for Infrastructure Planning in
Europe, Springer, 2004, pp. 179189.
[29] M. Tsakiri, D. Lichti, N. Pfeifer, Terrestrial laser scanning for deformation
monitoring, 2006.
[30] C.W. Bater, N.C. Coops, Evaluating error associated with lidar-derived DEM
interpolation, Comput. Geosci.-UK 35 (2009) 289300.
[31] T. Hengl, Finding the right pixel size, Comput. Geosci.-UK 32 (2006) 12831298.
[32] D. OSullivan, D. Unwin, Geographic Information Analysis, Wiley, 2010.
[33] K. Aruga, J. Sessions, A.E. Akay, Application of an airborne laser scanner to
forest road design with accurate earthwork volumes, J. For. Res. 10 (2005)
113123.
[34] A.E. Akay, J. Sessions, Applying the decision support system, TRACER, to forest
road design, West. J. Appl. Forest. 20 (2005) 184191.
[35] M. Demir, E. Makineci, M. Kartaloglu, Temporal sediment production of paved
and unpaved forest roads, Fresen. Environ. Bull. 21 (2012) 11801185.
[36] L.M. Reid, T. Dunne, Sediment production from forest road surfaces, Water
Resour. Res. 20 (1984) 17531761.
[37] C.H. Luce, T.A. Black, Sediment production from forest roads in western
Oregon, Water Resour. Res. 35 (1999) 25612570.
[38] C.E. Ramos-Scharrn, L.H. MacDonald, Measurement and prediction of natural
and anthropogenic sediment sources, St. John, US Virgin Islands, Catena 71
(2007) 250266.