Probability sample is required for inferential statistical analysis (tests of significant

difference and/or relationship)

Probability sampling is the only one general approach that allows the researcher
to use the principles of statistical inference to generalize from the sample to the
population (Frankfort- Nachmias& Leon-Guerrero 2002), its characteristic is
fundamental to the study of inferential statistics (Davis, Utts& Simon, 2002). It is the
sampling technique that uses the probability theory to calculate the likelihood of
selecting a particular sample and allows the drawing of conclusions about the
population from the sample.(Pelosi, Sandifer, &Sekaram, 2001) and it has the
advantage of projecting the sample survey results to the population (McDaniel & Gates,
2002). Inferential statistical analyses are based on the assumption that the samples
being analyzed are probability samples (Burns & Grove 1997).

From this context, the meaning of a statistically significant mean difference is

the mean difference observed in the sample would more likely be observed in the
population represented by the sample and the that of significant relationship is the
strength of relationship observed in the sample would more likely be observed in the
population.

Significance is statistical term used to indicate that the results of a study are not
simply a matter of chance. Researchers talk about significant differences and significant
correlations, the assumption being that chance has been ruled out (on a probability
basis) as the explanation of these phenomena.

Research design is a plan concerning who are what is to be studied, when, how and for what
purpose.

It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. It aids
the scientist in the allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial choices.

It is the plan and structure of the investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to

research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research. It includes an
outline of what the investigator will do from writing hypotheses and their operational
implications to the final analysis of the data. It expresses both the structure of the research
problem and the plan of investigation used to obtain empirical evidence on relations of the
problem.

It is the development of a plan for selecting and measuring the independent and
dependent variables in order to answer the research questions about their relationships.

True experimental design is a design that involves the manipulation of the independent
variable and comparison of groups in randomized assignment.
 Pretest-posttest control group design includes at least two randomized samples: an
experimental group and a control group. Subjects in each group are given a test prior to the
experiment and a test after the application of the treatment to the experimental group.

For the experimental group

Observe/test Apply treatment Observe/test
prior to application or intervention after application of
of treatment/ treatment/intervention
intervention
Oepre X Oepost

For the control group

Observe/test No treatment Observe/test
prior to application after application of
of treatment/ treatment/intervention to the
intervention experimental group

Ocpre Ocpost

Statistical illustration.

Dr. C intends to find out if the module he developed could help improve the performance
of his students in Stat. He randomly selected 10 students whom he intended to give a module
each and 10 students whom he will not give a module. Prior to the giving of the module, he gave
a test to the two groups, the results of which are the following.

Experimental (no module yet) Control (no module)

Student Oepre Student Ocpre
1 87 11 88
2 90 12 87
3 86 13 91
4 89 14 90
5 90 15 89
6 86 16 89
7 90 17 85
8 80 18 82
9 85 19 90
10 91 20 84

He later gave the modules for use by students 1 to 10 and did not give any module to
students 11 to 20. He made arrangements and situations such that all the other factors that
could affect student performance are controlled.

After sufficient time passed, he again administered a test to the two groups, the results
of which are the following.

Experimental (used module) Control (no module)

Student Oepre Student Ocpre
1 92 11 89
2 95 12 87
3 89 13 90
4 91 14 91
5 94 15 89
6 91 16 90
7 94 17 85
8 84 18 81
9 91 19 92
10 96 20 85

From this design, it will be possible for us to find out if there is a difference between the
performances of
1. The experimental and control groups before the application of the treatment
to the experimental group (e-c pretest results);
2. The experimental and control groups after the application of the treatment to
the experimental group (e-c posttest results);
3. The experimental group before the application of the treatment and the
experimental group after the application of the treatment (e pretest-posttest
results); and
4. The control group before the application of the treatment to the experimental
group and the control group after application of the treatment to the
experimental group (c pretest-posttest results).

E-c pretest results

Experimental (no module yet) Control (no module)

Oepre Ocpre
87 88
90 87
86 91
89 90
90 89
86 89
90 85
80 82
85 90
91 84

E-c posttest results

Experimental (used module) Control (no module)
Oepost Ocpost
92 89
95 87
89 90
91 91
94 89
91 90
94 85
84 81
91 92
96 85

E pretest-posttest results (no module- used module)

 Oepre Oepost
87 92
90 95
86 89
89 91
90 94
86 91
90 94
80 84
85 91
91 96

C pretest-posttest results (no module- no module)

Ocpre Ocpost
88 92
87 95
91 89
90 91
89 94
89 91
85 94
82 84
90 91
84 96

What statistical methods can be used here?

1. E-c pretest results- Arithmetic mean and t-test between independent samples
2. E-c posttest results- Arithmetic mean and t-test between independent
samples
3. E pretest-posttest results- Arithmetic mean and t-test between dependent
samples
4. C pretest-posttest results- Arithmetic mean and t-test between dependent
samples

Posttest-only control group design involves a randomly assigned experimental group and
a control group. After the experimental group has received the treatment, both groups are
measured on the dependent variable, then the scores are compared.

For the experimental group

Apply treatment Observe/test

or intervention after application of
treatment/intervention

X Oepost
For the control group

No treatment Observe/test
after application of
treatment/intervention to the
experimental group
 Ocpost
Statistical illustration.

Dr. C intends to find out if the module he developed could help improve the performance
of his students in Stat. He randomly selected 10 students whom he administered a module each
and 10 students whom he did not give a module. After some time, he administered a test to both
groups the results of which are the following.

Experimental (with module) Control (no module)

Student Oepre Student Ocpre
1 87 11 88
2 90 12 87
3 86 13 91
4 89 14 90
5 90 15 89
6 86 16 89
7 90 17 85
8 80 18 82
9 85 19 90
10 91 20 84

What statistical methods can be used here?

1. E-c posttest results- Arithmetic mean and t-test between independent
samples

Solomon four-group design involves two control groups and two experimental groups.
All groups are administered the posttest, but only one pretested group and one unpretested
group are exposed to the treatment.

For the experimental groups (e-groups)

E-group 1 (pre-tested)

Observe/test Apply treatment Observe/test

prior to application or intervention after application of
of treatment/ treatment/intervention
intervention

Oe1pre X Oe1post

E-group 2 (unpre-tested)

No test Apply treatment Observe/test

or intervention after application of
treatment/intervention
X Oe2post
For the control groups (c-groups)

c-group 1 (pre-tested)

Observe/test No treatment Observe/test

prior to application after application of
of treatment/ treatment/intervention to the
intervention experimental group

Oc1pre Oc1post

c-group 2 (unpre-tested)

No test No treatment Observe/test

after application of
treatment/intervention to the
experimental group

Oc2post

Statistical illustration

Dr. C intends to find out if the module he developed could help improve the performance
of his students in Stat. He randomly selected 10 students whom he intended to give a module
each and divided them into two groups at 5 students each; and 10 students whom he will not
give a module and divided them in two at 5 students each. Prior to the giving of the module, he
gave a test to one group whom intended to give a module and to another group whom he did
not intend to give a module, the results of which are the following.

Experimental 1(no module yet) Control 1(no module)

Student Oe1pre Student Oc1pre
1 87 11 88
2 90 12 87
3 86 13 91
4 89 14 90
5 91 15 84
Experimental 2 (no module yet) Control 2 (no module)
No pre-test No pre-test

He later gave the modules for use by the two other groups and did not give any module
to the other two groups. He made arrangements and situations such that all the other factors
that could affect student performance are controlled.

After sufficient time passed, he administered a test to all the groups, the results of which
are the following.

Experimental 1 (used module) Control 1 (no module) after treatment of e-1

1 90 11 89
2 86 12 89
3 90 13 85
4 80 14 82
5 85 15 90

Experimental 2 (used module) Control 2 (no module) after treatment of e-2

6 92 16 89
7 88 17 90
8 92 18 86
9 87 19 81
10 89 20 90

From this design, it will be possible for us to find out if there is a difference between the
performances of
1. The experimental and control groups before the application of the treatment
to the experimental group (e1-c1 pretest results);
2. The experimental and control groups after the application of the treatment to
the experimental group (e1-c1 posttest results and e2-c2 posttest results);
3. The experimental group before the application of the treatment and the
experimental group after the application of the treatment (e1 pretest-posttest
results), and
4. The control group before the application of the treatment to the experimental
group and the control group after application of the treatment to the
experimental group (c1 pretest-posttest results).

What statistical methods can be used here?

1. E1-c1 pretest results- Arithmetic mean and t-test between independent

samples
2. E1-c1 posttest results- Arithmetic mean and t-test between independent
samples
3. E1 pretest-posttest results- Arithmetic mean and t-test between dependent
samples
4. C1 pretest-posttest results- Arithmetic mean and t-test between dependent
samples
5. E2-c2 posttest results- ditto
6. E1 pretest results and c2 posttest results
7. E2 posttest results and c1 pre-test results- ditto

Quasi-experiment is a research strategy similar to experiment except it lacks

randomized assignment of subjects to conditions.

Quasi-experimental designs are designs that involve manipulation of the

independent variable and may include comparison of groups but are absent in
randomized assignment of subjects to conditions.
 Nonequivalent control group design is identical to pretest-posttest control group design
except intact groups rather than randomly assigned ones are used.

O1a X O1b
O2a O2b

Time-series design is a design that involves a series of pretests and posttests at each of
the various stages of the experimental treatment instead of single tests before and after the
intervention.

O1aO2aOna X1 O1bO2bOnb

Statistical illustration for the nonequivalent control group design

Dr. C intends to find out if the module he developed could help improve the performance
of his students in Stat. He purposively selected 10 students whom he intended to give a module
each and 10 students whom he will not give a module. Prior to the giving of the module, he gave
a test to the two groups, the results of which are the following.

Experimental (no module yet) Control (no module)

Student Oepre Student Ocpre
1 87 11 88
2 90 12 87
3 86 13 91
4 89 14 90
5 90 15 89
6 86 16 89
7 90 17 85
8 80 18 82
9 85 19 90
10 91 20 84

He later gave the modules for use by students 1 to 10 and did not give any module to
students 11 to 20. He made arrangements and situations such that all the other factors that
could affect student performance are controlled.

After sufficient time passed, he again administered a test to the two groups, the results
of which are the following.

Experimental (used module) Control (no module)

Student Oepre Student Ocpre
1 92 11 89
2 95 12 87
3 89 13 90
4 91 14 91
5 94 15 89
6 91 16 90
7 94 17 85
8 84 18 81
9 91 19 92
10 96 20 85

From this design, it will be possible for us to find out if there is a difference between the
performances of
1. The experimental and control groups before the application of the treatment to
the experimental group (e-c pretest results);
2. The experimental and control groups after the application of the treatment to
the experimental group (e-c posttest results);
3. The experimental group before the application of the treatment and the
experimental group after the application of the treatment (e pretest-posttest
results); and
4. The control group before the application of the treatment to the experimental
group and the control group after application of the treatment to the
experimental group (c pretest-posttest results).

E-c pretest results

Experimental (no module yet) Control (no module)
Oepre Ocpre
87 88
90 87
86 91
89 90
90 89
86 89
90 85
80 82
85 90
91 84

E-c posttest results

Experimental (used module) Control (no module)
Oepost Ocpost
92 89
95 87
89 90
91 91
94 89
91 90
94 85
84 81
91 92
96 85
E pretest-posttest results (no module- used module)
Oepre Oepost
87 92
90 95
86 89
89 91
90 94
 86 91
90 94
80 84
85 91
91 96
C pretest-posttest results (no module- no module)
Ocpre Ocpost
88 92
87 95
91 89
90 91
89 94
89 91
85 94
82 84
90 91
84 96
What statistical methods can be used here?
1. E-c pretest results- Arithmetic mean
2. E-c posttest results- Arithmetic mean
3. E pretest-posttest results- Arithmetic mean
4. C pretest-posttest results- Arithmetic mean

Cross-sectional survey design.A survey design where information is collected at a

single point in time with the purpose of describing the characteristics of a general sample of a
population, identifying differences among particular subgroups, or assessing interrelationships
among variables within the sample as of the time of the study.

In symbolized form:

T1 O1aO1bO1c
O2aO2b O2c.
OnaOnaOna

Illustration:

Dr. C conducted a survey among his Stat students to determine each students sex, the
sex of the thesis adviser he/she prefers and the type of thesis s/he wishes to conduct. He also
is interested to find out if a relationship exists between sex of his students and sex of their
preferred thesis adviser and between sex of his students and the type of their preferred type of
research. He randomly sampled 10 students, surveyed them on July 21, 2007 and got the
following data.

Student No. Sex Sex of preferred adviser Type of preferred thesis

1 Male Female Quantitative
2 Female Male Qualitative
3 Female Male Qualitative
4 Male Female Quantitative
5 Male Male Qualitative
6 Female Female Quantitative
7 Male Female Quantitative
8 Male Female Quantitative
9 Female Male Qualitative
10 Female Male Qualitative
What statistical methods can be used here?
1. Frequency and percent distribution of respondents by sex
2. Frequency and percent distribution of respondents by sex of preferred
adviser
3. Frequency and percent distribution of respondents by type of preferred thesis
4. Phi coefficient or contingency coefficient to determine the relationship
between two variables both with nominal measures. (chi-square based)
5. Chi-square test to measure the significance of the relationship
6. Biserial correlation to determine the relationship between two variables which
are both dichotomous.

Longitudinal survey designs. Survey designs that assess subjects on two or more
occasions with the same or similar instrument. They examine stability, development, or change
in the subjects across a span of time.

Panel design. It is a design where data are collected at different point in time from the
same subjects (called panel).

S1 S2 Sn where S= subject
T1 O11 O21 O31
T2 O12 O22 O32
Tn O1n O2n O3n

Trend design. It is a design where a new sample is drawn at each measurement period
to keep up with changes that may have occurred in the general population.

GS1 GS2 GSn where GS= sample from the general population
T1 O11
T2 O22
Tn O3n

Cohort design. It is a variation in trend design in which specific subpopulations, or

cohorts, are examined as they change overtime. A cohort is a group of people that have a
certain characteristic in common, such as being born in the 1950, graduating from college in
2005, or marrying between 1990 and 2000. The same population is involved throughout the
research but a fresh sample is selected every time data are gathered.

CS1 CS2 CSn where CS= sample from the cohort population
T1 O11
T2 O22
Tn O3n

What statistical methods can be used here?

For each cross-sectional portion
 1. Frequency and percent distribution of respondents by sex
2. Frequency and percent distribution of respondents by sex of preferred
adviser
3. Frequency and percent distribution of respondents by type of preferred thesis
4. Phi coefficient or contingency coefficient to determine the relationship
between two variables both with nominal measures. (chi-square based)
5. Chi-square test to measure the significance of the relationship
6. Biserial correlation to determine the relationship between two variables which
are both dichotomous.
For the longitudinal portion
1. Regression analysis