MANDATORY HISTORY NOTES: Year 10

Declaration of Human Rights 2

The Mabo Decision 2

The Wik Decision 4

The Native Title Amendment Act/10 Point Plan 4

Indigenous Protest: Day of Mourning and Cummeragunja Walk Off 5

Australian Aboriginal Activism: The 1960s-Wave Hill, 1967 Referendum, land rights 6

Freedom Rides Assessment 7

Steps to the Recognition of Aboriginal Land Rights 8

Vietnam War 11

The Cold War (1946-1991) 13

Alliances & Treaty Organisations formed by Australia 13

Australian Government's Response to Communism 14

Petrov Affair 16

Reasons for Australias Involvement in Vietnam War 16

Protest against Vietnam War 18

Save Our Sons Movement 20

Moratorium 20
Declaration of Human Rights
The United Nations
-formed end of WWII in 1945 during a meeting of 50 nations in San Francisco
-all nations present at the conference signed the Charter of the United Nations, which set out the purpose
and rules of operation of the UN.

Main involvement of UN in conflicts since WWII is in Peacekeeping Forces.

How UN Peacekeeping Forces operates: UN Peacekeeping Forces may only be deployed when
both parties involved in a conflict accept their presence. There are two types of peacekeeping
operations: unarmed observer groups and lightly armed military forces. Military forces are only allowed to
use their weapons for self-defence.

DOCUMENT:Universal Declaration of Human Rights: 30 articles (statements) that have influenced many
international and national treaties
How was Australia of the 1950/60s at odds with the UNs work?
The White Australia Policy, treatment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples

Parts of the world have Australian Peacekeeping Forces served=Primarily Africa, Middle East and Asia
(places rife with wars)

Rights and Freedoms

Development of Human Rights
Ancient Period Only monarchy had real control over their lives

US War of Independence & French Revolution Equality

Women gaining the votes 1902: Aus 1st country in world to give women right
to vote and be elected in Federal Parliament

Stolen Generation Aboriginals traditional land rights not recognised.

Gov favoured assimilation

Decolonisation of India and Pakistan Both countries gained independence from Britain

Decolonisation of Vietnam and Indonesia In:Netherlands, Viet:France

African de-colonisation de-colonisation=desire to self-rule

Aboriginal People gaining the votes 1960s: land+voting rights

Sex Discrimination Act 1984 Illegalised sex-based discrimination

The Mabo Decision

The struggle for recognition of land rights
-1788: Australias east coast became Crown land (claimed in name of English monarch), officials justified
as terra nullius and ignored Aboriginal land rights of Australias Indigenous peoples
-1960s: Aboriginal people increasingly pressuring governments to recognise land rights
Examples
-Wave Hill
-Yirrkala people(protest against the state governments allowing of mining on traditional land with sacred
sites, judge retorted with terra nullius :(( )
-Aus Day 1972, Aboriginal embassy (tent) set up on lawns of Parliament House. Aboriginals were angry
about Prime Minister William McMahons refusal to grant land rights.

Government Responses
Aboriginal peoples initiatives achieved results. Thus, the Whitlam government:
-made laws such as the Racial Discrimination Act 1975
-introduced policy of self-determination (self-governance)
-increased funding for Aboriginal affairs
-created a commission to investigate land rights
-1975: Whitlam formally handed the Gurindji people the lease of part of their traditional lands.

Mabo and the High Court, 1992

-Meriam Islanders continued traditional way of life on their island, Mer, until, in the late 1970s, the
Queensland government began to deny their land rights
-from 1982, Eddie Mabo led court case challenging governments denial of ab land rights, stated their
families had lived there since time immemorial (further back than anyone could remember)
-After losing case in Queenslands Supreme Court, they appealed to the High Court of Australia.
1992- High Court decided:
in favour of the Meriam Islanders against the State of Queensland
native title to land had existed pre 1788 and might still be in existence on land that governments
had never sold or given away
for native title to continue to exist, Indigenous families and their descendants would have to have
lived continuously on the land since 1788 and continued to follow traditional customs
on land that had been legally granted or sold by governments to someone else for their exclusive
use native title had ceased to exist.

The significance of the Mabo Decision

-recognised land rights, abolished legal fiction of terra nullius, provided limited opportunities for small
numbers of Indigenous peoples to claim ownership of their traditional lands (no backyard stealing)
Through Mabo, High Court recognised:
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples were the original owners of Australia
some of these peoples might still retain native title to traditional lands.
native title existed as a result of Indigenous peoples customary law (legal system that had
existed in Australia in 1788)

Native title is the recognition of Indigenous peoples traditional rights to land from pre-1788. It does not
mean title to land ownership. Native title can only still exist where Indigenous peoples have maintained
their traditional ties to land and where governments and the law have not extinguished it forever.
Aboriginals can apply to National Native Title Tribunal to investigate native title claims and to the Federal
Court to decide them. Land rights differ from native title rights_land rights are linked to claims people
make to governments to be recognised as the legal owners of a particular area.
The Wik Decision
a) What was the Wik decision?
Court decided that Indigenous people who can prove a connection to the land may have rights to hold
ceremonies and perform other traditional activities - as long as they don't interfere with the pastoralists'
legitimate activities. However, the pastoral leases do not automatically give exclusive possession to the
pastoralist, and therefore do not necessarily extinguish native title. This had been a major assumption
upon which the Commonwealth Native Title Act.had first been drafted.
-allows co-existence of native title and pastoral leases, but the rights of pastoral leaseholders prevail over
any inconsistent rights that native title holders might have.
Both Mabo and the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) had said that leases on Crown land had automatically
extinguished native title, but the Wik decision created an exception to this. The exception was where the
'lease' in question was a lease in name only, and did not grant the usual exclusive rights of a lease. The
ruling meant that pastoralists and miners would have to negotiate with native title holders for access to
their land.
b) Describe the wider Australian response to the Wik decision?
provoked significant political and public reactions in Australia
-some claimed that suburban backyards in Australia were under threat from native title claims
-others pointed out that the decision only affected leasehold land, not majority

The Native Title Amendment Act/10 Point Plan

In response to Wik: Native title amendments created by John Howard because Wik raised the possibility
of invalid claims
Features
-The National Native Title Tribunal holds absolute authority over claims for Native Title
-State governments are empowered to extinguish Native Title over crown lands for matters of 'national
interest' (increased power for state)
-Lands providing public amenities are exempt from Native Title claims
-mining and pastoral leases are allowed to co-exist with Native Title
-National Native Title Tribunal can create access to traditional lands rather than granting full Native Title
-registration test is imposed on all claimants
-The right to claim Native Title in or around urban areas is removed
-Government is permitted to manage land, water, and air issues in any site
-Very strict time limits will be placed on all claims
-Indigenous Land Use Agreements will be created to promote co-existence

Struggle Of Indigenous People

Terra Nullius: nobodys land
Aboriginal missions/reserves: purpose was to segregate black from white, support assimilation
Aboriginal Protection Boards: state institution to manage Aboriginal populations...primary purpose was to
to remove children from families (assimilation)
2 ideas that dominate Indigenous Australians in relation to public policy were:
Assimilation:
A policy of assimilation was officially adopted at the Aboriginal Welfare Conference of Commonwealth
and State Authorities in 1937, where authorities agreed that:
-those they described full blood Aborigines would be segregated on missions and reserves far away from
the white community.
-mixed blood Aborigines were to be absorbed into the white community.
Segregation:
-apartheid through colour bars, rules that prevented Aboriginals from entering public amenities
-not allowed certain jobs, separation in theatres, etc
Aboriginal peoples rights and freedoms after Federation
not entitled to vote in federal elections unless previously registered to vote in your state, denied basic
wage, not eligible for pensions or baby bonus, travel restrictions, excluded from military training, not
counted as members of the Australian population in the census.

Indigenous Protest: Day of Mourning and

Cummeragunja Walk Off
Day of Mourning
Australian Aborigines League (Victoria) and the Aborigines Progressive Association (New South Wales)
lobbying for years to improve rights with little resultAborigines DESPAIR prompted them to refuse to
participate in the re-enactment of the First Fleets landing Day of Mourning
1st time of full cooperation between Aboriginal activist groups from different states
Sesquicentenary (150 years after British colonisation), Aboriginals refused to participate in celebrations
When they refused to take part in first fleet re-enactment, organisers kept them locked up
-they were then made to run up the beach away from the British an inaccurate version of events. Film
footage of the re-enactment clearly shows that the men were not willing participants.

Cummeragunja walk off

-1st Aboriginal Mass protest
-Aboriginals crossed Murray River (NSW to Victoria)=defied rules of Aboriginal Protection Board

American Civil Rights Movement

Define: mass popular movement to secure for African Americans equal access to and opportunities for
the basic privileges and rights of U.S. citizenship.
peaked in the 1950s-1960s

Struggle for rights and freedoms for Africans America

-slavery ended in 1863 with the Emancipation Proclamation and 13th Amendment to the US Constitution
-however, segregation and discrimination still present.
-authority set obstacles to stop blacks voting (eg. tax)
-Klu Klux Klan (lynching, beating)
-us gov took steps against segregation but, blacks dissatisfied with slowness of change civil
disobedience

Examples of Civil Disobediences (non-violent protests)

Little Rock Nine-aimed to end segregation in schools. 9 Africans enrolled in whites only school in Little
Rock. Governor resisted this and used state military reserve force, but Martin Luther King wrote to US
president who sent elite military to protect students

Bus Boycotts- Rosa Parks arrested for not giving seat to a white man blacks boycotted, stopped using
buses reduced bus companys income by as much as four-fifths segregation gone

Freedom Rides: In 1960, the US Supreme Court had passed laws to end racial discrimination on public
transport. From 1961, white and African American students travelled through cities and towns in the
South to challenge local laws that still enforced segregation.
Obstacles: mob attacks (KKK), difficulty getting medicare after beatings from mobs
After pressure from Dr Martin Luther King and other leading activists, Attorney General Robert Kennedy
intervened. In September 1961, he insisted that states comply with federal desegregation laws.

March of Washington: Martin Luther King organised march protesting against segregation

Freedom Rides
Following example of the American civil rights movement, Sydney University students formed the Student
Action for Aborigines and organised a freedom ride protest around NSW.
-students travelled in buses around NSW
-showed everyday practices of racial discrimination against Indigenous people in parts of rural country
towns (hotspots of discrimination)
-exposed that Aboriginal people were refused entry to pubs, RSL clubs and public swimming pools

Effect: desegregation of RSl clubs, swimming pools+ Charles Perkins became notable, student support
for ab rights, "vote yes" in 1967 referendum, wage equality for pastoral workers, campaigns for land rights

Aims of the Aboriginal rights movement=

Desegregation, removal of discrimination + recognition, respect and equal treatment

Australian Aboriginal Activism: The 1960s-Wave Hill,

1967 Referendum, land rights
The 1967 referendum: Australians voted yes to amend constitution to include Aboriginal people in the
census and allow fed gov/commonwealth to create laws for them rather than leaving this to state
governments.
Referendum: a vote asking people to make a yes or no decision
Assess the success of the 1967 referendum
Not that effective
Note: 1967 referendum did not give right to vote, which had already been granted by 1962 Act of
Parliament
many challenges still remained (land rights,poor access to health services and education)

Wave Hill Walk Off

Initially protest against unequal pay between blacks and whites
but Gurindji leader who led the walkoff,had a more fundamental goal:return of traditional lands to the
Gurindji petitioned Governor General in 1967, arguing that morally the land was theirs and should be
returned Governor General refused
But PM Whitlam handed over 3300 square kilometres of land to the Gurindji people
(Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 granted Gurindji and other Aboriginal tribes in NT
title to some of their traditional land)

self determination the right of Indigenous people to manage themselves and their lands.
sovereignty-self governance

Aboriginal Tent Embassy was created in response to the slow progress being made on Aboriginal land
rights, and in particular to a court decision allowing mining on Aboriginal land. The embassy leaders had a
list of practical demands that they wanted to negotiate. These included: legal and title rights to land
currently being mined the preservation of all sacred sites compensation for lands not returnable
a $6 billion down payment and an annual percentage of gross national income. The demands were
rejected and the police removed the tents and arrested a number of activists. Over the next five years, the
embassy was erected, demolished and re-erected several times, until Charles Perkins negotiated its
temporary removal on the promise of action on land rights.
Aboriginal Tent Embassy established on the lawns of Parliament House in response to the McMahon
Governments refusal to acknowledge native title

Freedom Rides Assessment

Advantages
-publicity for equality movement
-exposed discrimination
-helped support Aboriginals in resisting discrimination (eg. seeking political representation)
-caused development of Aboriginal Legal and Medical Services in rural towns
Disadvantages
-criticism from conservatives and even Aboriginals themselves (stirred up trouble)
-opposition from white groups in visited rural towns
IMPACTS
generated huge media and public interest in the discrimination and segregation directed at the indigenous
population, sparked national debate on Aboriginal affairs and welfare. The discussion sparked by the
Freedom Ride was instrumental in reforms on both the national and state level for Aboriginal affairs, and
generated great public pressure on the government to act. Catalysed lobbying of governments for law
amendments.This led to the 1967 referendum for Aboriginal rights.This also allowed the federal
government to provide welfare to the indigenous population and allows Aborigines greater access to
justice and the legal system, which helped break down the social barrier between the indigenous and
white populations.

The Freedom Ride has also been credited to an extent in playing a role in the breakdown of the White
Australia policy in 1972 by Gough Whitlam. The Ride ended with Charles Perkins, the leader of the SAFA
(Student Action for Aborigines), becoming a national leader of Aboriginal affairs.

Steps to the Recognition of Aboriginal Land Rights

Aboriginal Land Rights
When Captain Cook visit Australia in 1770 he claimed the land Terra Nullius
(land belonging to no one)
Under British Law, the land became the property of the Crown in the name of
King of England. The crown had the power to make grants of land. All land came
from the Crown, but there were three different types of land
Types of land Title
1. Freehold: land that could be sold
2. Leasehold: land that is rented for a specific period for the exclusive use of
the leaseholder
3. Pastoral leases: land issued for specific periods and for purposes and were
not exclusive> these lands could only be used for grazing and had to
recognise the right of Aboriginal people to have access to their land

Steps to the Recognition of Land rights

Aboriginal protest movements-Yirrakala bark petition, the 1967 Referendum,
Gurindji walk off
The Woodward Report
The first land rights acts-The Aboriginal Land Right Act NT 1976
This act established a new form of land title called Aboriginal Freehold Title.
This title could only be given over vacant Crown land to Aboriginal people who
could prove traditional ownership. This land was to be communally held and
could not be bought or sold
Towards Reconciliation
Definition of Reconciliation(Aus gov)
-unity between Aboriginals & non-Aboriginals.
-respect for Aboriginal heritage and valuing justice and equity for all Australians.
Extended Response: Assess the success of the reconciliation process.
Steps towards reconciliation:
-gov acknowledges Aborigines had been wronged
Examples:
(Ayres Rock returned to Aboriginals by Hawke government returned to name Uluru)), Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Commission Act 1989: Aboriginals had full participation in decision making, ATSIC,
Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation,Mabo, Wik
genuine steps which paved way for reconciliation:acceptance of the 1967 referendum, land rights in
1970s and Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976

Establishment of ATSIC
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission: group elected by Aborigines, step towards their
self-determination
However, criticism on its lack of achievement for Indigenous communities.
Some felt:
-western democratic system did not work with their family-orientated values.
-lack of funding for health care, education, social security limited what ATSIC could achieve
-majority of budget spent on Community Development Economic Project Scheme (CDEP): did not deliver
economic benefits it purported to do
-due to mismanagement and funding discrepancies, abolished by Howard gov

The Apology to the Stolen Generation (Assessment)

-good: recognition that Aborigines had been wronged
-bad: no offer of compensation, ambiguous (ambiguity over compensation). Some criticised it as
meaningless unless practical steps are taken towards reconciliation
Howards apology
Howard rejected the idea that an official apology to Indigenous people or to groups such as the Stolen
Generations was needed as previous generations were responsible for the experience of Australias
Aboriginal peoples

Redfern Park Speech: PM Keating;first time PM had publicly acknowledged the injustices Indigenous
people had experienced because of past policies
Closing the Gap:goal is to close the health and life expectancy gap between Aboriginals and
Non-Aboriginals
Mabo Notes
Eddie Mabo: exiled from Murray islands for breaking customary law, moved to mainland Queensland,
became spokesman for Torres Strait Islanders etc
What inspired him? while working as groundskeeper at James Cook University, he was discovered from
Henry Reynolds that what he regarded as his people's traditional land was actually owned by the
Government. This discovery inspired Eddie to challenge land ownership laws in Australia.
In 1981 Land Rights Conference, lawyer suggested there should be a test case to claim land rights
through the court system-5 Meriam men
Mabo decision
-acknowledged Aboriginal dispossession, abolished legal fiction of terra nullius in which British justified
occupation without treaty nor payment
-in 1971 Gove case, Justice Blackburn ruled Aus as terra nullius. This was unsuccessfully challenged by
subsequent cases in 1977, 1979 and 1982
BUT on 20 May 1982, Eddie Mabo and 4 other Indigenous Meriam people began 10 year case for
ownership of traditional lands on Mer in Torres Strait. claimed that Meriam people had: continuously
inhabited and exclusively possessed these lands ,lived in permanent settled communities , had their own
political and social organisation
Case progressed from Queensland Supreme Court to High Court
High Court:
-on basis of native title, entitled Meriam people to possession, occupation, use and enjoyment of lands of
Murray Islands
-Introduced Native Title
Native Title: recognises that Indigenous Australians have a prior claim to land taken by the British Crown
since 1770

Land Rights and Native Title Powerpoint (Basic timeline: Wave Hill Protest National Tent
Embassy Mabo Wik Native Title Act Native Titile Amendment Act)
Unfortunately, Mabo Decision presented CHALLENGES in dealing with native Title claims to protect
and manage Native Title, Native Title Act 1993 was passed
NTA=Native title could only exist on land where it hadnt been extinguished. This included most of
Australia (freehold land, commercial, agricultural, pastoral and residential leases and the constructions of
public works)

Wik Decision 1996= courts decision that co-existence was possible between Native Title holders and
pastoral leaseholders
High Court ruled that the granting of pastoral leases in the Cape York Peninsula in far Noth QLD did not
necessarily extinguish Native Title.

However, in the case of inconsistency between Native Title and the rights of the pastoral leases, the
rights of the leaseholder prevail
In response, Howard gov issued 10-point plan, Native Title Amendment Act
-reduced amount of land over which Aboriginal people could claim Native Title
-Reduced the circumstances under which Aboriginal people could negotiate on future mining activity
-Made it more difficult to register a Native Title claim
-passed in the Senate by one vote and was found by United Nations to be discriminatory

After World War II, Australias international relations and involvement in military conflicts were based on
the following key elements:
the broader context of the Cold War
alliances with Britain and the United States
involvement with international organisations such as the United Nations (UN).

Vietnam War
Causes of war:
-Indochina occupied by the French during 19th century.
-By early 20th century,Asian nationalism+desire for independence=high tension between the native
Vietnamese and French
-India and Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) had also expressed desire to gain independence from colonial
powers.
Ho Chi Minh and the Indochinese Communist Party.
-1931: Ho Chi Minh helped found the Indochinese Communist Party.
-he was a Communist and Nationalist, wanted to end to French occupation in Vietnam.
Japanese invasion of Indochina
-1941:Japan invaded Indochina and other parts of Asia.
-HCM responded by creating Revolutionary League for Independence of Vietnam (VIETMINH).
-1945: Japan surrendered. Vietminh declared Vietnam independent.
BUT French would not accept the new independent nation of Vietnam. With US help, they reasserted
French control in Indochina.
War erupts between the French and the Vietminh.
9 years war, French suffered defeat
1954- International conference was held: France agreed to withdraw and Indochina was divided into three
independent nations: Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam
Division of Vietnamese Territory.
North Vietnam was led by Ho Chi Minh and his Communist Party.
South Vietnam was led by Ngo Dinh Diem (installed by the United States).

Conflict between Ho Chi Minh and the United States.

HCM was a staunch nationalist, committed to the unification of North and South Vietnam. US did not want
all of Vietnam to become Communist.

The formation of the Vietcong (National Liberation Front).

-formed in 1960 by Nationalist groups in South Vietnam
The Vietcong became involved in Guerilla warfare to combat South Vietnam.
also received assistance from communist North Vietnam.

Americas involvement in the Vietnamese conflict.

During the Kennedy years (1961-63), the United States dispatched aid and military advisors to assist the
South Vietnamese Army.
In 1963, the leader of South Vietnam Ngo Ding Diem was assassinated.
Several weeks later JFK was assassinated, the Vietnam problem was then inherited by the new American
President: Lyndon Johnston. America was committed to fighting communism in Vietnam.
Australias position
Australias involvement was a continuation of the longstanding support of U.S presence in Asia
-also anti-communist
Australia's Response to Threat of Communism
Communism was considered a direct threat to democracy and the Australian way of life
Post WWII, many Asian countries gained independence from European nations seen as threatening by
Australia
Thus, Australia participated in the following wars:
1) the Korean War (19501953) in support of both Britain and the USA as part of a UN force
2) the Malaya Emergency (19501960) in support of the British
3) the Vietnam War (19541973) in support of the USA.
Korean War
Japan surrendered former Korean colony after WWII country split
North Korea (USSR), South Korea (USA)
Soviet leader Stalin supported NKs Kim Il Sung invasion of SK
US president,Truman, immediately called UN UN ordered North K army to retreat, but NK refused
UN sponsored military intervention led by US troops under command of General Douglas MacArthur
PM Menzies immediately offered Aus support
Aus involvement shows alliance with USA and UN
War was justified as necessary because it indicated to the communists that they were
willing to use force to oppose communist expansion.
No outcome: no winner=war was meaningless

Malayan Emergency
anti-British, nationalist war
Malayan Communist Party attempted uprising against British
PM Menzies sent Aus forces, told Parliament that:
-communist activities in Malaya were directly associated with other communist rebellions in Asia

While Australian troops were involved in the Korean War and Malayan Emergency,
Australia became a party to two security pacts in the Asia-Pacific region: the ANZUS Treaty
(Australia, New Zealand, United States Treaty) and the SEATO Alliance (Southeast Asia
Treaty Organization Alliance).

Explain why these two conflict (Korean War, Malayan Emergency) were part of the Cold War
Both involved a clash between communism and capitalism, seen as part of a wider Cold War conflict. In
each case, conflict resulted from self-determination and poverty
-Self-determination: Malaysians, Koreans and Vietnamese wanted national self-determination (wanted
independent rule, not rule by foreigners)
-Poverty: large peasant populations looking for prosperity. In Malaya and Vietnam, communist
ideas were particularly appealing to the peasants because the communists favoured land reform

The Cold War (1946-1991)

Conflict between USA (+allies) and Soviet Union (USSR and allies)
Capitalism:country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.
Communism:all property/resources are collectively owned by a classless society and not by individual
citizens
3 countries that supported each ideology
Communism (Soviet)/Eastern Bloch:Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland
Capitalism/Western Bloch:US, UK, Denmark

Alliances & Treaty Organisations formed by Australia

ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States)

-military alliance between Aus, NZ, USA, signed in 1951

-directed against possible threat of newly communist China
-Another motivation was Aus long-held desire to formalise alliance with USA.
-not a treaty made between equal powers:
Aus/NZ could not defend USA if it came under attack (esp w/ nuclear weapons)
By contrast, USA could easily defend Aus/NZ

SEATO (1954)
South-East Asian Treaty Organisation formed between the USA, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand,
Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines. an anti-communist alignment of western powers with some Asian
countries that achieved very little in practical terms. Essentially a Cold War pact based on fear of
communism. SEATO never guaranteed Aus security. (all countries weak)

NATO (1949)
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an alliance between 10 Western European countries with USA and
Canada aimed at preventing the spread of communism in Europe
CENTO
Central Treaty Organization- an alliance of anti-communist states in the Middle East that was supported
by the USA.

Perspectives on anti- communist alliances

US Perspective and Australian Perspectives: alliances supported policy of containment-therefore good!
Soviet Union and Chinas Perspectives: saw alliances as threats to security

policy of containment
the view that rather than risk a nuclear war and direct conflict between the USA and the Soviet Union, US
would simply aim to stop /contain communist-style governments from spreading. Shared by Menzies. this
kind of thinking led both the USA and Australia into the Vietnam War, incorrectly assuming that Ho Chi
Minh was a communist puppet controlled by the Soviet Union and China.

Australian Government's Response to Communism

Key Outline of Government response:
1)Legislation to prevent spread of communism
2)Involvement in international conflicts
3) Defensive alliances
4) Non-military programs

Legislation To Prevent Spread of Communism

Crimes Act was formed in 1920 [made overthrowing the government using violence illegal]
1925-suspected communist trade unionist were threatened with deportation [high court found this illegal]
Suspected communists not allowed into the country [used dictation test to control this]
1950: Communist dissolution bill [Menzies government attempts to introduce this bill: that the communist
party and anything connected to it is illegal.] Was challenged by the High Court [found it illegal to
challenge the constitution] and a referendum was held. [results said no.]
Tried to ban communists from holding powerful positions in trade unions
Banned from employment in government departments

Defensive Alliances: SEATO, ANZUS, etc

Involvement in International Conflicts:
-on basis of domino theory-spread of communism through countries
Eg, Vietnam War: democratic south, communist north
Australia aimed to defend South Vietnam against communist North Vietnam and unite Vietnam under
democracy
Results: US and Aus lost, Vietnam united under communism and remains communist country to the
present day.
Australian Involvement
-financial aid to the South Vietnamese government
-trained the south Vietnamese army
-Sent conscripted soldiers

Non-Military Programs
Government aimed to instil pro-democratic fervour through
-Colombo plan
-and other overseas program to strengthen links with South-East Asian countries (assists
education/poverty)
Pro-democracy decreases the likelihood of communism spread in countries susceptible to communism!

Menzies Attempt to Ban Communist Party

In 1950 The Menzies Government (liberal party) attempt to pass legislation to ban the Communist Party.
The question of whether or not to pass the Bill split the Labor Party. It would remain in opposition until the
Whitlam Government came to power in 1972.

Menzies was PM twice

1st defeat: labour party won
Regained power, re-elected using wedge politics+anti-communist sentiment in general Aus public during
COLD WAR
Liberal party: lack of government interference
Labour party: more socialist, calls for more government regulation to protect workers rights (whiff of
communism?)

Liberal party could gain the populist vote by claiming that the Labour party was sympathetic to
communism (due to its socialist views)-

How can a bill be passed?

A bill can only become a law if it is passed by a majority vote in the House of Representatives and the
Senate.
Why did Menzies believe that the Communist Party threatened Australian democracy?
he stated that communism had few supporters, but: importance of the Australian Communist is, not
numerical, but positional.communists occupy key positions in key organisations in the industries upon
which this country would have to depend if tomorrow it were fighting for its life.
security and defence of Australia are dependent... in the continuity of these great industries that are vital
to a national effort should war come
What were the main features of the Communist Dissolution Bill?
Liberal Party led by Menzies introduced it in 1950. The legislation proposed to:
-Outlaw Communist Party
-permit government to take possession of all property belonging to the Communist Party
-prohibit anyone declared as a communist from holding a job in the trade union movement or in a
government organisation.
-Once declared a communist, it was up to the accused to prove his or her innocence. This enraged many
people, as it threatened individual rights and freedoms.

Who opposed the Bill? What did they do?

10 trade unions and Australian Communist Party challenged the Bill in the Australian High Court. They
argued that only during wartime should a democratic government have the power to control the rights of
citizens.
What was the finding of the High Court?The High Court agreed and ruled that the Bill was
unconstitutional.
How did Menzies respond to the High Courts decision?Prime Minister Menzies responded by
announcing his intention to go to the people through a referendum to outlaw and crush the Communist
Party in Australia.
Results of the Communist Dissolution Referendum?
The referendum was one of the most bitterly fought in Australias history. Many public forces advocated
the yes vote, including the media and some groups within the Catholic Church. The Australian people
cast 2 317 927 votes for and 2 370 009 against the proposal at the referendum on 22 September 1951.
The no majority in the referendum was not large, so the threat of communism remained alive as an issue
within Australian politics.

Despite this, Menzies continued to insist that the Cold War was a real war and his government continued
to use the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) to watch and sometimes harass
communists and people they suspected were communists.

Petrov Affair
-Summary: essentially, the Liberal Party used the Petrov Affair to win the election via wedge
politics
-initially, there was loss of public interest in communism after defeat of referendum
-Menzies and gov was losing support so they re-ignited fear of communism:M told parliament that an
official of the Soviet Embassy had asked for political asylum. He also announced that Petrov had provided
details of a Soviet spy ring operating in Australia
Details:
Petrov defected to Australia to prove loyalty, he provided details of Soviet spy ringthese details
supported Menzies suspicions and warning about communism---> Menzies was victorious in election
(claimed Labour could not manage this communist threat)
-after Petrovs defection, Menzies established Royal Commission on Espionage to investigate Soviet
spies
Key outcome of Petrov affair: Split of labour party
-Labour party leader, Dr Evatt claimed Petrov documents had been deliberately forged to ruin Labour's
chances
But right-wing catholics within Labour party feared communism questioned evatt
eventually right-wing groups in labour resigned or were expelled led by Bob Santamaria, formed own
political party, Democratic Labour Party (DLP) =strongly anti-communist
Weakened Labour party (next 6 elections lost)
Cold War Espionage (spying)
-Both sides in the Cold War used spies to gain knowledge or spread false knowledge of what one side
was doing. Soviet intelligence agency was successful in penetrating some sensitive areas of the US and
other Western governments (cooperation of citizens in Western countries or by Soviet diplomats)

Reasons for Australias Involvement in Vietnam War

-Australias foreign policy approach during the Cold War, including the idea of forward
defence the belief that Australia would need to rely on Britain and the United States
for its security in the region. Australia was willing to commit troops to support Britain
and the United States when they became involved in conflicts in Asia, with the aim of
showing loyalty to these great and powerful friends and the hope this support would be
reciprocated.
-Australias belief in the domino theory, following the fall of China to communism in
1949, the first domino in the chain.
-Australias obligations as a member of the United Nations
-Australias historical and ongoing fear of Asian invasion
-Australias eagerness to formalise a military alliance with the United States through
the ANZUS Treaty, moving to a closer relationship with the United States as Britains
influence in the region declined.
-the background to the war in Vietnam, where a non-communist South Vietnam was
under attack by communist North Vietnam, and where the United States became heavily
committed to fighting communist forces.
The official reason for Australian involvement
The decision to send troops to Vietnam without being asked by the South Vietnamese
government or the Americans had the potential to create diplomatic and media problems
for the Menzies government. It was kept from the public until Menzies announced to
Parliament on 29 April 1965 that Australia would be sending combat troops to Vietnam, as a
response to a request from the South Vietnamese government. No such request from South
Vietnam had been sent. We now know that the Australian government asked for a request to
be cabled before Menzies made his announcement.

TIMELINE
1949 MENZIES WINS THE ELECTION ON THE PLATFORM OF KICKING THE COMMUNIST CAN
1951 COMMUNIST PARTY DISSOLUTION BILL INTRODUCED
1951 HIGH COURT DECLARES IT UNCONSTITUTIONAL
1951 REFERENDUM TO THE BAN THE COMMUNIST PARTY NARROWLY FAILS
1954 PETROV SPY SCANDAl, MENZIES REELECTED, SPLIT IN LABOR PARTY FORMATION OF
DLP
ROYAL COMMISION INTO SPYING
1955 FINAL REPORT VALIDATES PETROV CLAIM OF SPYING WITNESSES OF TRUTH

Australia's Involvement Timeline

Australia saw communist activity in Vietnam as a threat to Australian security.
Australia supported the involvement of the United States to support South Vietnam
1964 the Menzies Government introduced conscription. It operated on a lottery system of birthday
dates for 20 year-olds.
1965 Australia decided to send combat forces to help the South Vietnamese/US in their struggle
against communist activity from the north
The decision was controversial because it was supposed to be from a South Vietnamese request.
In reality the request came after the Australian Government announcement.
Public opinion generally supported the decision to send troops to South Vietnam. As the war
intensified, Australia increased its military participation in the war.
1966 President Johnson visited Australia, and soon after, in the federal election of that year, the
Holt government was returned to office in a resounding victory
The Australian Labor Party led opposition to the military involvement in South Vietnam

Conscription from selected 20 year old males had been introduced in 1964
In 1966, when the size of the Australian force in South Vietnam was increased, conscripts were
required to serve as well
Opposition to the war gradually increased
Opinion polls showed that by 1969 fewer Australian supported the war
The peace movement began in Australia with protest, particularly in universities
The Save Our Sons movement led a protest against conscription and the Vietnam War
Large anti- war rallies called the Vietnam moratorium marches were held in 1970
 By 1969 Australia began to withdraw our troops and the last men were brought home by the new
Whitlam Labor government in 1972.

Politicians & Australias War Involvement

Robert Menzie (1949-66): Made initial Australian commitment to Vietnam
Harold Holt.(1966 1967)
-Reinforced and extended commitment
-Won election on basis of Vietnam Policy

John Gorton(1968 1971)

-Maintained policy
-Begun withdrawal of forces
-Maintained conscription
Our main role was in search and destroy missions in which villages were surrounded and searched. If
Vietcong supplies were found the village was burnt. Networks of underground tunnels were destroyed and
Vietcong suspects were interrogated and handed over to South Vietnamese troops.

Protest against Vietnam War

Teach-ins took place from 1965. Speakers holding a variety of opinions debated the issues.
The Youth Campaign Against Conscription (YCAC) university students who organised marches and
demonstrations.
Save Our Sons (SOS) movement (1965) largely middle-aged women held silent protest vigils.
Young men burned their draft cards and protests saw clashes between the demonstrators and the
police.
Some young men decided to go to jail rather than be conscripted. The courts could exempt those who
could prove they were pacifists (opposed to ALL wars on religious or moral grounds).
Grounds for opposition to the Vietnam War
It was believed that Australians were being sent to fight for an unpopular and corrupt dictatorship.
It was a civil war and we had no business being there.
-conscription
 increased media:Television coverage showed the horrors of war eg use of napalm, execution of old
people, women and children.
Fire free zones places where Vietnamese villages were bombed ad machined gunned without
restriction.
"Mai Lai Massacre" in 1968 where 120 Vietnamese were slaughtered shocked the world.
It was a civil war and we had no business being there.
It was immoral to send young conscripts who were too young to vote. You had to be 21 at that time to
vote.
-Increasing Horror: Buddhist self-immolation
-Many of their members were arrested for things like handing out pamphlets on the streets, making
protests or filling out fake registration forms for people to be conscripted.

Conscription in Vietnam War

All males had to register when they turned 20
Lotteries held based on marbles with birth dates, picked from a barrel
Those whose birth dates were drawn had to report for service

Those exempt:Ministers, University student, Pacifist (had to lodge conscientious objection)

65% of Australian forces to Vietnam were made up of conscripts, 35 % were regular

Supporters Vs Opponents of War

Supporters of War:
Mostly were from the older generation, who had lived through WWII and saw America as the big brother
and thought Australia needed their support.
Newspapers, trade unions, RSLs, churches
(Holt, Menzies) Liberal Party and their conservative followers were largely supportive of the war.

Opponents:
Australias anti-war movement was strongly connected to the re introduction of conscription or National
Service Scheme in 1964.
Australian Communist Party
Group organised protests: Youth Against Conscription and Save Our Sons were formed in 1964.
Labour Party
Universities
Protestant churches
Conscientious objectors:people who opposed war on moral grounds (pacifists)
Labour Party
Some trade unions

Early Resistance
The first anti-Vietnam war protests took place on annual Hiroshima Commemoration day
20 000 marchers carried No War in Vietnam banners.

Save Our Sons Movement

mothers of potential conscripts who staged peaceful public
protests against conscription and the war.
-Fairlea prison: 5 women for handing out protest leaflets to conscripts on way to Vietnam Australians
enraged

Moratorium
The Moratorium rallies of 1970 appealed to people as a means of putting forward their views about
ending conscription and the war. Stop National Service Act going to Parliament
moratorium= a delay in or stop to an activity
This movement organised giant moratorium marches across the nation.
Important: first time that a protest was met with a nationwide response
anti-war/anti-conscription mass movement:70,000 people
March on moratorium for sending conscripts to Vietnam
What did this Campaign Demand?
The campaign demanded:
- the immediate, total and unconditional withdrawal of Australian and all other allied foreign troops from
Vietnam and -the immediate abolition of conscription.

It was agreed that all actions taken were to be of a peaceful, non-violent nature.

However by 1970 opposition was much more intense.

Intensity of conflict over conscription/Vietnam election of Labour party under Whitlam new PM Gough
Whitlam abolished National Service, recalled Australian army Australias involvement in the Vietnam
War was officially over