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PlanningAnalysis:

TheTheoryofCitizenParticipation

Introduction
Citizenparticipationisaprocesswhichprovidesprivateindividualsanopportunitytoinfluencepublicdecisionsandhas
longbeenacomponentofthedemocraticdecisionmakingprocess.Therootsofcitizenparticipationcanbetracedto
ancientGreeceandColonialNewEngland.Beforethe1960s,governmentalprocessesandproceduresweredesignedto
facilitate"external"participation.Citizenparticipationwasinstitutionalizedinthemid1960swithPresidentLyndon
Johnson'sGreatSocietyprograms(Cogan&Sharpe,1986p.283).

Publicinvolvementismeanstoensurethatcitizenshaveadirectvoiceinpublicdecisions.Theterms"citizen"and
"public,"and"involvement"and"participation"areoftenusedinterchangeably.Whilebotharegenerallyusedtoindicatea
processthroughwhichcitizenshaveavoiceinpublicpolicydecisions,bothhavedistinctivelydifferentmeaningsand
conveylittleinsightintotheprocesstheyseektodescribe.Mizerevealsthattheterm"citizenparticipation"andit's
relationshiptopublicdecisionmakinghasevolvedwithoutageneralconsensusregardingeitherit'smeaningnorit's
consequences(Mize,1972).

Manyagenciesorindividualschoosetoexcludeorminimizepublicparticipationinplanningeffortsclaimingcitizen
participationistooexpensiveandtimeconsuming.Yet,manycitizenparticipationprogramsareinitiatedinresponseto
publicreactiontoaproposedprojectoraction.However,therearetangiblebenefitsthatcanbederivedfromaneffective
citizeninvolvementprogram.CoganandSharpe(1986,p.284)identifyfivebenefitsofcitizenparticipationtotheplanning
process:

Informationandideasonpublicissues

PublicSupportforplanningdecisions

Avoidanceofprotractedconflictsandcostlydelays

Reservoirofgoodwillwhichcancarryovertofuturedecisionsand

Spiritofcooperationandtrustbetweentheagencyandthepublic.

AllofthesebenefitsareimportanttotheForestServiceinitsplanningefforts,particularlythelastthree.Recentforest
managementdecisionshaveledtoprolongedcourtcasesandagenerallackoftrustamongmanypeoplewithrespectto
theForestService.

DecisionmakingStructures
Indiscussingthetheoryofpublicparticipation,itisusefultoreviewbroadtheoriesofdecisionmakingstructures.DeSario
andLangton,intheirbookCitizenParticipationinPublicDecisionMakingexploretheroleoftechnologyinpublicpolicy
decisions(DeSarioandLangton,1987).Theyconcludethatpublicdecisionsareincreasinglybeinginfluencedby
technology.Twobroaddecisionmakingstructuresaredefinedandanalyzed:thetechnocraticapproachandthe
democraticapproach.

Technocracy(orthetechnocraticapproach)isdefinedastheapplicationoftechnicalknowledge,expertise,techniques,
andmethodstoproblemsolving.Democracy,asdefinedbyDeSarioandLangton,referstocitizeninvolvementactivitiesin
relationtogovernmentplanningandpolicymaking(DeSarioandLangton,1987p.5).Theseapproachesaredescribedin
moredetailbelow.

TechnocraticDecisionMaking
ThetechnocraticapproachtodecisionmakinghashistoricallybeenappliedinmostForestServicedecisions.Strong
argumentscanbemadeinfavorofatechnocraticdecisionapproach.Akeyargumentisthattrainedstaff"experts"are
bestsuitedtomakecomplextechnicaldecisions.Expertsareincreasinglybecomingapartofourdecisionmaking
structuresinboththepublicandprivatesectors(DeSarioandLangton,1987.p.7).However,Nelkinconcludedthat
scientificandtechnocraticapproaches"notonlyfailedtosolvesocialproblemsbutoftencontributedtothem"(Nelkin,
1981.p.274).Thenotionthatthe"cureisoftenworsethanthedisease"becomesincreasinglyimportantasthe
technologyprovidesalternativesolutionstopublicpolicyissues.

Techniquesandmethodsappliedbyexpertsaremosteffectivewhenconsideringtechnicaldecisionsasopposedtovalue
ormixed,decisions.Kantrowitz(1975)identifiedthreeseparatetypesofpolicydecisions:(1)technicaldecisionsthatare
basedsolelyontheapplicationandextrapolationofscientificissues(2)valuedecisionsareconcernedwiththeresolution
ofimportantnormativeorsocietalissuesand(3)mixeddecisionsthathavebothtechnicalandvaluecomponents.
Technicaldecisionsrelyonscientifictechniquesandextrapolationstodeterminethepotentialof"whatis".Valueissues
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involvenormativedeterminationsof"whatshouldbe".Althoughscientificinformationcanprovideguidancewithrespectto
valuedecisions,itisrarelythesoledeterminant(DeSarioandLangton,1987.p.8).

Naturalresourcemanagementdecisionsfrequentlyaffectsocialvalues.Thetechnocraticapproachtodecisionmakingis
difficulttoapplysuccessfullytosocialproblemsbecausesocialgoalsareoftencomplex,conflictingandunclear(DeSario
andLangton,1987p.9).AccordingtoKantrowitz:"theproblemforexpertsisthattheissuestheymostfrequentlyconfront
whenaddressingsocialproblemsare`mixeddecisions'decisionsinvolvingbothtechnicalandvaluejudgements"
(Kantrowitz,1975p.506).

AgrowingnumberofAmericansarebecomingmoreskepticaloftechnologyanditsexperts.Oneresultofthisskepticism
isaheighteneddemandforgreatercitizenparticipationwithrespecttotechnologicaldecisions(DeSarioandLangton,
1987p.11).Asaresult,technologicalprogresswillfaceincreasedpublicscrutinyasthedeficienciesoftechnologyand
expertsbecomemoreapparent.Theintegrationofthetechnocraticanddemocraticapproaches,particularlyinnatural
resourcemanagement,hasledtoanincreasingsenseoffrustrationandfutilityforboththepublicandthegovernment
agenciesinvolved(KaplanandKaplan,1989).Theseandavarietyofrelatedfactorsindicatethereisagrowingneedfor
decisionmakingprocessesatalllevelsofgovernmentthatallowagenciestosuccessfullyintegratethepublic'sdemand
forgreaterinputwhileincorporatingtheagency'sexpertiseanddesireforefficiency.

DemocraticDecisionMaking
Democraticdecisionmaking,incontrasttobureaucraticortechnocraticdecisionmaking,isbasedontheassumptionthat
allwhoareaffectedbyagivendecisionhavetherighttoparticipateinthemakingofthatdecision.Participationcanbe
directintheclassicaldemocraticsense,orcanbethroughrepresentativesfortheirpointofviewinapluralistrepublican
model(KweitandKweit,1986p.22).KweitandKweitgoontopointoutthatcriteriaforevaluatingpoliciesinademocratic
processaretheaccessibilityoftheprocessand/ortheresponsivenessofthepolicytothosewhoareaffectedbyit,rather
thantheefficiencyorrationalityofthedecision.

PublicParticipationInRationalPolicyMaking
Many"rational"policydecisionsaremadeusingthepolicyanalysisprocess.AccordingtoLang,adecisionisrationalto
theextentthatitisshownempiricallytomatchthebestavailablemeansofachievingagivenend(Lang,1986).Traditional
rationalplanningandpolicyanalysisprocessestypicallyhavefiveorsixsteps.PattonandSawickioutlinesixstepsinthe
policyanalysisprocess:(1)problemdefinition(2)identificationofgoalsandobjectives(3)developmentofalternatives
(4)developmentofevaluationcriteria(5)identificationofthe"best"alternativeand(6)monitoringandevaluationofthe
outcome(PattonandSawicki,1986,p.26)FigureA1showsadiagramofthepolicyanalysisprocess.

KweitandKweitsuggestthatpolicyanalysistendsconcentratepowerinthehandsofafewexpertsandthatpolicy
analysisismostcompatiblewithbureaucraticdecisionmakingwhichis"antitheticaltocitizenparticipation"(Kweitand
Kweit,1986p.21).Becausethepolicyanalysisprocessreliesonspecializedtechniques,expertiseisaninherent
componentofpolicyanalysis.Assuch,theroleofcitizenparticipationinthetraditionalpolicyanalysisprocessis
minimized.Citizensoftenlacktechnicalexpertiseandcanbeemotionallyinvolvedinissuesofconcernratherthatbeing
detachedandrational(KweitandKweit,1986p.22).

Foranumberofreasons,apurelyrationaldecisionmakingprocessisdifficult.Onemajorlimitationinherentintheprocess
isthelackofcomprehensiveinformation.However,inputfromcitizengroupsoutsideorganizationalboundariescanhelp
providemorecomprehensiveinformationonallaspectsofthepolicyanalysisprocess.KweitandKweitstate:

Inademocracy,itisthepublicthatdetermineswhereitwantstogo,andtheroleofitsrepresentativesand
bureaucraticstaffistogetthemthere.Inotherworks,endsshouldbechosendemocraticallyeventhough
themeansarechosentechnocratically(KweitandKweit,1986p.25).

FigureA1.ThePolicyAnalysisProcess

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ThisstatementhasimportantimplicationswithrespecttoForestServicedecisions.Theexistingpolicystructurewithinthe
agencymandatesthattargets(ortheends),whicharetieddirectlytofunding,aresetbyCongress.Thiswouldimplythat
theendsarechosendemocratically.ThetargetsareimplementedontheForestandDistrictlevel.Thus,traditionallythe
meansaredevelopedandchosentechnocratically.

Congress,aselectedrepresentatives,theoreticallyrepresentsthepublicinterestinsettingtargets.Recentissueswith
respecttoforestmanagement(i.e.,spottedowllawsuits)suggestthatthisapproachisnolongereffectiveinmanagingthe
NationalForestsystem.Onitsface,thismayseemtoimplythattheForestServiceshouldapplyapurelytechnocratic
decisionmakingprocess.However,itisunlikelythatapurelytechnocratic(topdown)approachwillcontinuetobe
appropriategiventhenumberanddiversityofpublicinterestswhohaveastakeinforestmanagementdecisions.

Lang,suggeststhattraditionalcomprehensiveandstrategicplanningprocessesareinsufficientforcurrentresource
managementplanningandadvocatesamoreinteractiveapproachtoplanning.Langsuggests:

Anintegratedapproachtoresourceplanningmustprovideforinteractionwiththestakeholdersinthesearch
forrelevantinformation,sharedvalues,consensus,andultimately,proposedactionthatisbothfeasibleand
acceptable(Lang,1986p35).

Langsuggeststhatconventionalplanningtendstobedominatedbyatechnical/analyticstylewheretheplannerisa
detachedvalueneutralexpertadvisingdecisionmakersaboutthebestwaytoaccomplishtheirgoalsandservethepublic
interest.Theemphasisisondatacollectionandanalysisasthemeansforfindingthebestsolutionstoproblemsand
developingatechnicallysoundplan.Theimplicitassumptionisthatbetterinformationleadstobetterdecisions.Success
inconventionalplanningismeasuredbytheextenttowhichtheobjectivesoftheplanareachieved(Lang,1986p39).

AccordingtoLang,interactiveplanningisbasedontheassumptionthatopen,participativeprocessesleadtobetter
decisions.Theplannerengagesdirectlywithstakeholderstogainsupport,buildconsensus,identifyacceptablesolutions,
andsecureimplementation.Successininteractiveplanningismeasuredbytheextenttowhichbalancecanbeachieved
amongcompetinginterestsandconsensusisreachedonappropriateactions(Lang,1986p39).Table21providesa
comparisonofinteractiveversusconventionalplanning.

Table21.InteractivePlanningv.ConventionalPlanning

InteractivePlanning ConventionalPlanning

Includesinformation/feedback,consultation Limitedinformation/feedbackmaybesome
andnegotiation consultation

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Interactionoccursearlyonandthroughoutthe
planningprocess,withfullrangeof
stakeholders
Assumesthatopenparticipationleadstobetter
decisions
Plannerasvaluecommittedadvocate
Focusesonmobilizationofsupport
Plan=whatweagreetodo
Successmeasuredbyachievementof
agreementonaction
The Theory of Citizen Involvement
Earlyinteractionwithimplementersaffected
interestsnotinvolveduntillateinprocess
Assumesthatbetterinformationleadstobetter
decisions
Plannerasvalueneutralexpert
Focusesonmanipulationofdata
Plan=whatweshoulddo
Successmeasuredbyachievementofplan's
objectives

Source:Lang,1986p.39

Finally,Langsuggeststhatmuchofplanningpracticeisdominatedbyaperspectivethatissometimescalled"technical
rationality."However,threeotherperspectives,inadditiontothetechnicalarecentraltoresourceplanning.Theseare
organizational,political,andpersonal(Lang,1986p41).Langnotesthat"multipleperspectivescompriseanessential
featureofintegratedresourceplanning."Mitchelldefinesthistoincludesharingandcoordinatingthevaluesandinputsof
abroadrangeofagencies,publics,andotherinterestswhenconceiving,designingandimplementingresourcepolicies,
programsorprojects(Mitchell,1987).

TheliteraturesuggeststhatitwillbecomeincreasinglydifficultfortheForestServicetocontinuewithit'sexisting"top
down"decisionmakingstructure.Awidevarietyofpublicsareactiveinfollowingtheagency'sdecisionsfromthenational
andregionallevel,downtothetimbersalelevel.Thisincreasedlevelofscrutinysuggeststhattheagencywillbeheld
moreaccountablefordecisionsbyinterestedpublics.Further,theconflictsinherentinresourcemanagementdecisions
makeaninteractiveapproachtoplanninganddecisionmakinganattractivealternativetotheexistingdecisionmaking
structure.

PrinciplesOfCitizenParticipation
Agreatdealofliteratureexistsonthesubjectofcitizenparticipation.Areviewofthisliteratureindicatestherearesome
commonlyacceptedprinciplesthatcanbeappliedinthedevelopmentandimplementationofacitizenparticipation
program.Cogan,SharpeandHertberg,inthebookThePracticeofStateandRegionalPlanningprovideaconcise
overviewofcitizenparticipationintheplanningprocess(So,etal,1986p.283308).Followingisasummaryoftheir
discussion.

PerceptionsofStakeholdersandPlanners
Theperceptionsofstakeholdersandplannersisanimportantconsiderationinthedevelopmentandimplementationofany
publicparticipationprogram.Publicparticipationisoftenarequirementforplanners,however,itisalwaysoptionalfor
citizens.Citizenschoosetoparticipatebecausetheyexpectasatisfyingexperienceandhopetoinfluencetheplanning
process.

Cogan(p.287)indicatesthatparticipationcanofferavarietyofrewardstocitizens.Thesecanbeintrinsictothe
involvement(throughtheveryactofparticipation)orinstrumental(resultingfromtheopportunitytocontributetopublic
policy).Theplanner'sexpectationsarealsoimportantinthataneffectivepublicparticipationprogramcanleadtoabetter
planningprocessandproductaswellaspersonalsatisfaction.

Wellplannedcitizeninvolvementprogramsrelatetheexpectationsofboththecitizensandtheplanner.Arnstein's"ladder
ofcitizenparticipation"canassisttheplannerindetermininghisorherperceptionsofaprogram'spurposeandcompare
thiswiththeanticipatedperceptionsofcitizenparticipants(seeFigureA2).

Insuccessfulcitizeninvolvementprograms,thedisparitybetweentheplanner'sandtheparticipant'sexpectationsin
minimal.Ifexpectationsaredifferent,conflictisprobable.Thisconflictisdamagingtotheplanningprocess(aswellasthe
agency'sreputation),andtotherelationshipbetweentheparticipantsandtheplanner.Often,itisavoidablebecauseit's
sourceisinconflictingexpectationsratherthanconflictingdemands(Cogan,etal.,1986,p287).

FigureA2.TheLadderofCitizenParticipation

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Clearly,citizenparticipationprogramscanincreasecostsandtheamountoftimeaprojecttakes.Further,asdiscussed
above,thereisacertainlevelofriskassociatedwithcitizenparticipationprograms.However,Cogansuggeststhatcitizen
participationprogramscanmaketheplanningprocessandplannersmoreeffectiveby:

Reducingisolationoftheplannerfromthepublic
Generatingaspiritofcooperationandtrust
Providingopportunitiestodisseminateinformation
Identifyingadditionaldimensionsofinquiryandresearch
Assistinginidentifyingalternativesolutions
Providinglegitimacytotheplanningeffortandpoliticalcredibilityoftheagencyand
Increasingpublicsupport.

Further,incertainpolarizedissuesaneffectivepublicparticipationprogrammayactuallysavetimeandmoneybyinsuring
thattheproposedsolutionisacceptabletoalloftheinterestedstakeholders.

TechniquesofCitizenParticipation
Thereareavarietyoftechniquesavailabletoplannerstosolicitpublicinputintheplanningprocess.Theserangefrom
basicopenmeetingstomoresophisticatedtechniquessuchastheDelphiandNominalGrouptechniques(seeAppendix
Bforamoredetaileddescriptionofthesetechniques).Coganstates"withfewexceptions,asuccessfulpublicinvolvement
programincorporatesseveraltechniques"(Cogan,etal.1986p.292).Thesetechniquescanbegraphicallypresentedas
acontinuumthatrangesfrompassiveinvolvementtoactiveinvolvement(FigureA3).Coganprovidesthefollowing
descriptionofeachoftheformsofpublicinvolvementfollows(Cogan,etal.1986p.292294).

PublicityPublicitytechniquesaredesignedtopersuadeandfacilitatepublicsupport,relatingtocitizensas
passiveconsumers.
PublicEducationPubliceducationprogramspresentrelativelycompleteandbalancedinformationsothat
citizensmaydrawtheirownconclusions.
PublicInputPublicinputtechniquessolicitideasandopinionsfromcitizens.Theyaremosteffectivewhen
combinedwithfeedbackmechanismswhichinformparticipantsoftheextenttowhichtheirinputhasinfluenced
ultimatedecisions.
PublicInteractionPublicinteractiontechniquesfacilitatetheexchangeofinformationandideasamongcitizens,
planners,anddecisionmakers.Whenthesetechniquesareeffectivelyutilized,eachparticipanthastheopportunity
toexpresshisorherviews,respondtotheideasofothers,andworktowardconsensus.
PublicPartnershipPublicpartnershipsoffercitizensaformalizedroleinshapingtheultimatedecisions.

Notalltechniquesfitexclusivelyintoonecategory.Forexample,apublicmeetingmayprovideopportunitiesforeducation
andinteraction.

AkeypointCoganmakesisthatthenumberofcitizenswhocanbeinvolvedisinverselyrelatedtothelevelofactive
involvement.Forexample,publicrelationseffortscanreachalargernumberofcitizens,whilepublicpartnershiplimits
participationtoafew(Cogan,etal.1986,p.293).

OneofthestatedgoalsoftheDeltaShowcaseProjectistodeveloppartnershipswillindividualsandgroups.Whilethisis
clearlyanachievablegoal,thepreviousdiscussionindicatesthatthenumberofpartnershipsdevelopedduringtheproject
willprobablybesmall.

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FigureA3.PublicParticipationContinuum

PUBLICITY PUBLIC PUBLIC INPUT PUBLIC PUBLIC

EDUCATION INTERACTION PARTNERSHIP

Building public Disseminating Collecting Two-way Securing advice and

support information information communication consent

<----------------- PASSIVE ACTIVE------------------>

CriteriaforanEffectiveCitizenParticipationProgram

Understandingthatavarietyofcitizenparticipationtechniquesexist,plannersmustdeveloppublicparticipationprograms
thatmeetthespecificgoals,objectives,andcircumstancesofeachindividualproject.Coganstatesthat:

Asuccessfulcitizenparticipationprogrammustbe:integraltotheplanningprocessandfocusedonits
uniqueneedsdesignedtofunctionwithinavailableresourcesoftime,personnel,andmoneyand
responsivetothecitizenparticipants(Cogan,etal.1986p.298).

Becauseofthereasonsstatedabove,eachspecificprojectwilldemandadifferentapproachtopublicinvolvement.
However,Coganindicatesthatmostsuccessfulcitizenparticipationprogramscontainsomecommonelements.Tobe
effective,Cogansuggeststhatcitizenparticipationprogramsmust:

Meetlegalrequirements

Clearlyarticulategoalsandobjectives

Commandpoliticalsupport

Beanintegralpartofthedecisionmakingstructure

Receiveadequatefunding,staff,andtime

Identifyconcernedoraffectedpublicsand

Delineateclearrolesandresponsibilitiesforparticipants.

Aprogramthatincorporatestheseelementswillgenerallybeeffectiveinmeetingtheexpectationsofboththeplannerand
theparticipants.

PublicInvolvementInNaturalResourceManagement
PlanninghasalwaysbeenusedbytheForestServiceasameanstoguidetheallocationandmanagementofforest
resources.Planningisanessentialcomponentofsoundnaturalresourcemanagementbecauseofthevarietyof
resourcespresentandthetimeframesformanagingtimberresources.

AnumberoflegislativemandatesexistthatformalizeForestServicelongrangeplanningefforts.Theseincludethe
MultipleUseSustainedYieldActof1960,theForestandRangelandRenewableResourcesPlanningActof1974,andthe
NationalForestManagementActof1976.Theseactsalsogivethepublicaroleintheplanninganddecisionmaking
processoftheNationalForests(Sample,1992).

ThedemandforuseofNationalForestresourceshaveincreasedtothepointwheretheForestServicecannolonger
accommodateallusesatoptimallevelswithoutconflict(KrutillaandHaigh,1978).Increasingly,conflictsarisebetween
variousinterestgroupstimber,recreation,environmentalconservationandpreservation.Overtime,theseconflictshave
growninsignificanceandseverityresultinginastalemateoflegalchallengesthathasforcedtheForestServicetodefend
it'sdecisions.

PublicparticipationisoneapproachthattheForestServicecanusetohelpgenerateconsensusandapprovalinit's
decisionmaking.Workingundertheassumptionthatpublicconsultationisbecomingincreasinglyimportantinnatural
resourcemanagementissuesandthatitisgenerallydesirable,weconcludeourdiscussionwithareviewoftheelements
ofaneffectiveconsultationprogram.

Priscoli&Homenuckmpointoutthatdemandforpublicconsultationinpolicyanddecisionmakingispartofalarger
movementthatevolvedfromthe1960s.Theinitialquestiontheyraiseis:whoisthepublic?Theycategorizepublicsinto
fivegroupsincluding:(1)theorganizedpublic(2)thegeneralpublic(3)politicians(4)publicinterestgroupsand(5)local
experts(PriscoliandHomenuckm,1986p68).

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Thesecondissueis:whodoeseachgrouprepresent?Theansweristhatsomegroupsarenotveryrepresentative,while
othergroupsarehighlyorganizedandknowhowtolobbybutmaynotreflecttheviewsofthemajorityofthepopulation.
Theyemphasizethesearereasonsthatitisessentialapublicconsultationprogrambeproperlydesignedinorderto
establishaprocesswhichprovidestheopportunityforallviewstobeidentifiedandincorporatedintoadecisionmaking
process.Thepurposeofpublicconsultationistoaiddecisionmakersbyensuringthatviewsareidentified,questions
raised,answersprovided,andjudgementssupported(PriscoliandHomenuckm,1986p69).

Thethirdissueiswithrespecttotheamountandformofconsultation.PriscoliandHomenuckmidentifysixgoalsor
objectivesforpublicconsultation(PriscoliandHomenuckm,1986p70).Whileallarerarelyachieved,mixescanbe
achieved:

1.Tobuildcredibilitywiththosewhowillbeaffected,thosewhowillpayandthosewhowilluseaproject.
Thispointdoesn'thavetobedwelleduponeveryonerecognizesthecredibilitygapexists.

2.Toidentifypublicconcernsandvalues.Manytechniquesdothisinaforumthatisrelativelyopenand
straightforward.

3.Todevelopconsensusamongtheimpactedparties,usersandthosewhopay.Indifficultcontroversies,
consensusisrarelyachievedbutisverysatisfyingwhenitis.

4.Tocreatethegreatestnumberof"unsurprised"apathetics.Inmanycasesnoteverybodyneeds
involvementorwantstobeinvolved.Mostpeopleareperipherallyinvolved.Thesepeopleshouldnotbe
surprised,rather,theyshouldbeinformed.

5.Toproducebetterdecisions.Publicconsultationcanproducebetter"technical"decisionsthanastrictly
technicallyorienteddecisionprocess.

6.Toenhancedemocraticpractice.ThedemocraticideologywhichunderliestheNorthAmericanpolitical
structurehasasaprincipletenettherighttoparticipateindecisionmaking.Publicconsultationallowsand
promotesparticipation,thusavoidingthefurtherissuethatcanarisewhenthepublicisexcludedfroma
decisionmakingprocess.

PriscoliandHomenuckmsuggestthatatapracticallevel,publicconsultationprogramsshouldstrivetoisolateandmake
visibletheextremes.Inotherwords,theprogramshouldcreateincentivesforparticipantstofindamiddleground(Priscoli
andHomenuckm,1986p70).

Conclusion
Publicparticipationisonemeansofdecreasingtensionandconflictoverpublicpolicydecisions.Avarietyoftechniques
existthatsolicitpublicinputeffectively.Plannersandparticipantscanderiveanumberoftangiblebenefitsfroman
effectivepublicinvolvementprocess.However,theexpectationsofplannersandthepublicmustberoughlyequivalentfor
theprocesstobeeffective.

RecentplanningmodelssuchastheInteractivePlanningprocessdescribedbyLang,incorporatepublicinputinallphases
oftheplanningprocess.Theoretically,involvinginterestedpublicsinallphasesofplanninganddecisionmakingwilllead
tobetterdecisions.

References

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