Fluid Statics

ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I Fluids can NOT remain at rest under the presence of shear stress.
In other words, fluids at rest can NOT support any shear.
For static fluids we can only talk about normal stress which is equal to pressure.
Part 2 Determining the pressure distribution within a static fluid is the main task here.
Applications include
Fluid Statics
Pressure distribution in still atmosphere and oceans.

These presentations are prepared by

Pressure measurement using manometers.
Dr. Cneyt Sert Forces acting on submerged solid bodies.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bouyancy and stabilitiy of floating bodies.
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey Fluids in rigid body motion are also free of shear
csert@metu.edu.tr
forces and their analysis is very similar to that of
You can get the most recent version of this document from Dr. Serts web site. static fluids. Theyll be studied later in ME 305.
Please ask for permission before using them to teach. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
http://www.cromwell.org.nz/aerial_photos/pages/Clyde Dam_jpg.htm
2-1 2-2

Pressure Direction Dependency of Pressure

For a fluid at rest, pressure is defined as the normal force acting per unit area Exercise : For a fluid at rest, pressure at a point is independent of direction, which
exerted on a surface immersed in the fluid. is known as Pascals Law. Find and study its derivation in your fluid mechanics
It is due to the bombardment of the surface with the fluid molecules. book.
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
3 1 = 2 = 3 =
1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa
1 P
1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars = 14.7 psi
Point P
Atmospheric pressure that we feel is due to the air column sitting on top of us. 2
Dam
It is quite high (~105 Newton per m2 or ~10 tones per m2 ).

In a moving fluid there will be both static and dynamic pressure definitions. Static
pressure will be defined in a special way. Itll be a bit tricky.
Famous Magdeburg experiment that
demonstrates the power of the atmospheric
pressure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdeburg_hemispheres
2-3 2-4

1
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
As we dive deep into the sea we feel more pressure in our ears. Exercise : In a static fluid with weight being the only body force, derive the
following hydrostatic force balance.
When we travel to high altitudes atmospheric pressure decreases.
Following fluid element in a static fluid is not moving because no net force acts on it. + = 0
Net pressure force Weight per
Dam per unit volume unit volume
= 9.81

It is common to select in the negative direction, i.e. =

/
In this case the above equation reduces to + = 0
Weight
Pressure only changes in the direction, not or .

For static fluids Forces = 0 Weight + ? ? ? = 0

Remember that = (specific weight)
Net pressure force
2-5 2-6

Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid (contd) Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid (contd)
To evaluate (), i.e. to perform the integration,
= =? Exercise : How deep in the sea should you dive to feel twice the atmospheric
we need to know how and change with . pressure?

Consider to be independent of . At sea level it is 9.807 m/s2 and at 14 km

altitude it is 9.764 m/s2 (less than 0.5 % change). Edge of the
atmosphere
Also for simplicity lets consider constant density (incompressible fluid).
~100 km air column creates
If is constant = can be integrated to give 1 atm pressure (Note that
~100 km the density of air varies
+ = constant considerably over this 100
Dam kms.)
1
1 + 1 = 2 + 2
2 Sea surface
10 m
~10 m water column
1 2 = 1 + (12 ) creates 1 atm pressure

2 2 = 1 +

As we go down in a constant density fluid pressure increases linearly with depth.

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2
 Pressure Variation with Variable Density U.S. Standard Atmosphere Model

If constant, we need a relation to integrate =

60 60

Exercise : According to U.S. Standard atmosphere model (see the next slide),
50 50

Altitude [km]

Altitude [km]
temperature within the first 11 km of the atmosphere drops linearly as = 0 + ,
where the temperature at the ground is 0 = 288 K (15 ) and the temperature
lapse rate is = 0.0065 K/m. 40 40

a) Considering that the pressure at the ground level ( = 0) is equal to 101325 Pa

30 30
and treating air as an ideal gas, obtain the pressure variation as a function of within
the first 11 km of the atmosphere. 20.1 km
20 20
b) Use the equation derived in part (a) to calculate the atmospheric pressure at the

(up to 11 km)
11 km

Troposphere
peak of Mount Everest ( = 8848 m). Does your result match with the second figure
10 10
of the next slide?
-56.5 oC
c) How much percent error would there be in the previous calculation if we assume 0 0
atmospheric air to be isothermal at i) ground temperature of 15 oC, ii) an average -60 -40 -20 0 15 0 40 80 120
temperature of -14 oC ? Temperature [oC] Pressure [kPa]
2-9 2-10

Pressure Variation with Variable Density (contd) Absolute vs Gage Pressure

Exercise : In 1960 Trieste sea vessel carried two oceanographers to the deepest point
in Earths oceans, Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench (10,916 m). Designers of
Trieste needed to know the pressure at this depth. They performed two calculations.
First they considered the seawater to be incompressible with a density equal to the
value at the ocean surface, which is 1020 kg/m3. Then they considered the
compressibility of seawater using a modulus of elasticity of 2.07x109 Pa. Taking the
atmospheric pressure at the ocean surface to be 101.3 kPa, calculate the percent
error they made in the calculation of pressure at = 10,916 m when they
considered seawater to be incompressible.
Absolute pressure is measured with respect to complete vacuum.
Certain pressure measuring devices measure pressure with respect to the ambient
pressure, which is usually the atmospheric pressure. This is called gage pressure.
Gage pressure is commonly used when we want to get rid of the atmospheric
pressure effect.
When your cars manual says that you need to inflate the tires to 30 psi, it is
actually trying to say 30 psi gage (30 psi g). If the local atmospheric pressure is
95 kPa, absolute pressure of air inside the tires would be

101.3 kPa
Absolute pressure in the tire = 30 psi + 95 kPa = 301 kPa
14.7 psi
Also read about James Camerons
2012 dive at the Challenger Deep.
Tire pressure is 301 kPa absolute
http://www.deepseachallenge.com
= 95 kPa
Pressure gage reads
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathyscaphe_Trieste
2-11 30 psi g = 206 kPa g 2-12

3
 Pressure Measuring Devices - Mercury Barometer Pressure Measuring Devices - Aneroid Barometer
In 1643 Toricelli demonstrated that atmospheric pressure can be measured using a Aneroid means without fluid.
mercury barometer. Greek word baros means weight. Aneroid barometer measures absolute pressure.
Mercury vapor It has a vacuumed chamber with an elastic surface.
= mercury vapor 0
= ? B
When pressure is imposed on this surface, it deflects
= =
inward.
C = + www.stuffintheair.com
Due to this deflection the needle will rotate and
A Mercury = show the pressure.

After proper calibration, a barometer can also be
used as an altimeter, to measure altitude. Below a
For = 101,325 Pa and = 13,595 kg/m3 mercury rise will be = 0.76 m.
certain altitude, atmospheric pressure decreases
mmHg is another unit used for pressure. It gives the pressure difference across a 1 1 millibar for each 8 m of ascent.
mm mercury column. To read more about the aneroid barometer
kg m http://www.bom.gov.au/info/aneroid/aneroid.shtml
1 mmHg = 13595 9.81 103 m = 133.4 Pa
m3 s2 www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com

1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 760 mmHg

2-13 2-14

Pressure Measuring Devices - Bourdon Gage Pressure Measuring Devices - Pressure Transducer
Measures the gage pressure. Patented at 1849. Pressure transducers generate an electrical signal as a function of the pressure they
are exposed to.
A bent elliptical tube is open and fixed at one end, and
closed but free to move at the other end. They work on many different technologies, such as
When pressure is applied to this tube it deflects and the Piezoresistive
pointer connected to its free end shows the gage
Piezoelectric
pressure (pressure with respect to the atmospheric
pressure outside of the tube). Front Capacitive
When the tube is disconnected the pointer shows zero. Electromagnetic
It can be used for the measurement of liquid and gas Optical
pressures upto 100s of MPa.
Thermal
http://www.lefoo.com
etc.
They can be used to measure rapid pressure fluctuations in time.
Differential types can directly measure pressure differences.
Back
www.discoverarmfield.co.uk
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4
 Manometers Manometers (contd)
Manometers are used to measure pressure differences using liquid columns in tubes.
Working principles are
3 B
any two points at the same elevation in a continuous liquid have the same pressure. A B
h3
1
pressure increases as as one goes down in a liquid column. A
h1
h2

C D
2
+ =
+ 1 1 = =
h
A h = + 3 3 + 2 2

A B C Exercise : Whats the

advantage of using an
inclined manometer
= + + = instead of a vertical one?
= =
2-17 2-18

Manometers (contd) Hydrostatic Forces Acting on Submerged Surfaces

Exercise : The volume rate of flow, , through a pipe can be determined by means of Pressure force always acts perpendicular to a surface in a compressive manner.
a flow nozzle located in the pipe as illustrated below. The nozzle creates a pressure
drop, , along the pipe that is related to the flow through the equation Exercise : Show the variation of pressure force acting on the walls of the following
= , where is a constant depending on the pipe and nozzle size. The containers. Pay attention to both magnitude and direction.
pressure drop is frequently measured with a differential U-tube manometer.
a) Determine an equation for in terms of the specific weight of the flowing
fluid, the specific weight of the gage fluid, and the various heights indicated.
b) For 1 = 9.8 kN/m3 , 2 = 15.6 kN/m3 , 1 = 1 m and 2 = 0.5 m, calculate
.

The task is to find the resultant pressure force acting on a submerged surface and
point of application of the resultant pressure force.
Different techniques can be used such as : 1. Direct Integration Method
2. Pressure Prism Method

Munsons book
3. Force Component Method
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5
 Direct Integration Method Direct Integration Method (contd)
This general technique can be used to calculate the resultant pressure force on acts through a point called center of pressure (CP).
planar or curved surfaces.
Coordinates of CP are calculated by equating the moment created by the distributed
Integrate the pressure variation on a surface to get the resultant pressure force . pressure force along an axis ( or ) to the moment created by along the same
0 axis.
0
Planar plate is on the plane.
=
Were interested in the pressure

force acting on its top surface.
Differential force acts on the =

differential area .
CP =
= = (0 + )

Integrate over the plate area Moments Moments

Pressure
to get the resultant force
distribution created by the created by the
resultant distributed
CP pressure force pressure force
=

2-21 2-22

Exercises for Direct Integration Method Pressure Prism (PP) Method

Exercise : Rectangular gate of size 6 m 3 m This is an alternative (and sometimes easier) technique to calculate hydrostatic
is hinged along B and held by the horizontal forces acting on submerged planar surfaces (not used for curved surfaces).
force applied at A. Calculate the force Consider an imaginary prism with the planar surface of interest being its base and
required to keep the gate closed. 8m the amount of pressure acting on the surface being its height.
B
Side view 0
3m
A of the gate
= =

6m
= =
Pressure prism
Exercise : Solve the previous Exercise : Solve the previous
problem by considering a problem by considering a semi- CP = = volume of the
triangular gate as shown below. circular gate as shown below. 0 +
pressure prism

B B passes through the centroid
3m 3m of the pressure prism.

A A 0 + =
6m 6m 2-23 Height Base area 2-24

6
 Pressure Prism (PP) Method (contd) Exercises for PP Method
PP method is easy to use if is easy to calculate. Exercise : Solve the problems of slide 2-22 using the PP method.
If the surface shape is complicated such that evaluation of and/or its centroid
requires integration, then the PP method has no advantage over the direct
integration method. Exercise : The wall shown has a width of 4 m.
Determine the total force on the wall due to
You can divide the pressure prism into sub volumes for ease of calculation. oil pressure. Also determine the location of Oil
1.4 m
B the center of pressure from point A along the A 45o
1 wall. Density of oil is 860 kg/m3.
B 1 = 1
B
A A
=
B Gate
A Exercise : (Foxs book) As water rises on the
2
2 = 2 left side of the L-shaped gate, it will open
Pressure automatically. Neglecting the weight of the 1.5 m
prism A
gate, at what height above the hinge will Water
B this occur? How will the result change
(increase, decrease or no change) if the Hinge
= 1 + 2 , = 1 1 + 2 2
A mass of the gate is considered?
2-25 2-26

Exercises for PP Method (contd) Exercises (contd)

Exercise : (Foxs book) Gates in the Poe Lock at Michigan, USA close a channel, which Exercise : Show that for a submerged planar surface resultant pressure force is
is 34 m wide and 10 m deep. The geometry of one pair of gates is shown below. Each equal to the pressure at the geometric center of the surface multiplied by the
gate is hinged at the channel wall. When closed, edges of the gates are forced surface area.
together by the water pressure. Evaluate
0
a) the force exerted by water on gate A.

b) the reaction forces on the hinges.
=

Hinge In general, points G and

G CP are not the same.
CP
Gate A Exercise : Think about a
Water 34 m
case for which points G

15o and CP are the same.

G

http://www.enerpac.com/infrastructure/fixing-pair-of-loose-hinges
Top View Geometric center
CP
2-27 (centroid) 2-28

7
 Forces Acting on Submerged Curved Surfaces Force Component Method (contd)
Force Component (FC) Method
Consider the curved surface ABCD shown below. Horizontal component is equal to
For simplicity it is aligned such that the net pressure force acting on it only has the force acting on the projected
and components. planar surface ABEF.
B
Direct integration method can be used to Exercise: Prove the above.
calculate and its point of application.
E C Because ABEF is a planar surface, PP
Or the FC method can be used to calculate A
B method can be used to calculate
and separately. = ? and its point of action.
F
A E D
C

B
F Shaded area is the projection
D of curved surface ABCD on E
A, B A
the plane.

F

C, D
2-29 2-30

Force Component Method (contd) Exercises for FC Method

Exercise : Calculate the pressure force due to liquid

is the weight of the liquid that will
acting on the curved surface of the shown quarter
fill the volume between the curved
cylinder. Also determine the center of pressure.
surface and the free surface, i.e.
B
volume ABCDEFGH shown below. a) Use direct integration method.

=? Exercise: Prove the above. b) Use force component method.
A C
acts through the centroid of this

volume.
D Exercise : One puzzling detail about the force
component method arises when the volume
F G
between the curved surface and the free surface
E H is NOT completely filled with liquid.
B

Do you think the result of this problem is any
A
C different than the previous one?

D

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8
 Exercises for FC Method (contd) Buoyancy Force
Exercise : The following Tainter gate is used to control water flow from a dam. The Consider a body that is fully submerged (could
gate width is 35 m. Determine the magnitude and line of action of the force acting be floating on the surface too) in a static fluid.
on the gate by the water. Whats the advantage of using such a circular gate
A distributed pressure force acts all around the 3D
profile? Tainter gates body
body.

20 m
10 m Using the force component method we can show that the net horizontal pressure
force acting on the body is zero.

Left and right parts have the same

http://www.discover-net.net/~dchs/history/gate_ani.gif http://www.ciltug.com vertical projection. So the horizontal
2-33
forces acting on them cancel out. 2-34

Buoyancy Force (contd) Buoyancy Force Exercises

The net vertical pressure force is NOT zero. It is called the buoyancy force.
Exercise: Use the force component method to get the following result for an
arbitrarily shaped body.
Net vertical force on is bouyancy = body
1 1
= 2 1
2 = 2 1 Exercise: The weight of a body is usually measured by disregarding buoyancy force

applied by the air. Consider a 20 cm diameter spherical body of density 7800 kg/m3.
= 2 1
What is the percentage error in calculating its weight if we neglect buoyancy?
= 2 1
2 =
Exercise: A 170 kg granite rock ( = 2700 kg/m3) is dropped into a lake. A man dives
in and tries to lift the rock. Determine how much force he needs to apply to lift it
Overall vertical force is obtained by integrating the above expression from the bottom of the lake. Do you think he can do it?

vertical = bouyancy = = body

body

Buoyancy force acting on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
submerging the body into the fluid. This is known as the Archimedes principle.

2-35 2-36

9
 Hydrometer Capillarity
Hydrometer uses the principle of buoyancy to measure the density of a liquid. When a glass tube is immersed into a liquid, which wets the surface, such as water,
adhesive forces between the glass and water exceed cohesive forces in water, and
First it is calibrated by dipping it into a liquid of known density, such as water.
water rises (capillary rise) in the glass tube.
Marked for Stem This vertical rise continues until the surface tension forces are balanced with the
water Water mark weight of the water column in the tube.

For a non-wetting fluid, such as mercury, the force balance results in a different
Water Another liquid configuration known as capillary drop.
( ) Cross sectional
()
Volume inside area of stem
water (known)
Glass tube
(known)
= 1 = (1 )

1 Movie : Hydrometer
=
1

We read and then calculate the unknown . water mercury

Stem may be marked so that we can directly read .
2-37 2-38

Capillarity (contd) Capillarity (contd)

Due to surface tension, the meniscus (free surface inside the tube) will be curved
Writing a vertical force balance for the meniscus q q
and there will be a pressure difference between the two sides of it. 2
cos() = ( )
> 4
Force per
Length
length
This pressure difference is balanced by the surface tension force.

Writing the manometer equation for the liquid
between the meniscus and the free surface

= +


q q (Note that the pressure change of ambient air over

the distance is negligibly small).



Meniscus Combining these two equations, capillary rise is Movie : Capillary Rise
given by

4 cos()
=

2-39 2-40

10