9.1.

INTRODUCTION

:.JLCmachine is actually an alternating current machine, but furnished with a special device,
called the commutator, which under certain conditions converts ac into dc and vice-versa.
The term "generator" denotes that it generates electrical energy but actually it does not.
It simply converts mechanical energy supplied to it into electrical energy.
The generator operates on the principle of the production of dynamically induced emf i.e.
whenever flux is cut by the conductor, dynamically induced emf is produced in it according
to the laws of electromagnetic induction, which will cause a flow of current in the conductors
if the circuit is closed.
For production of dynamically induced einf, three things are necessary, a magnetic field, a
conductor and motion of the conductor with respect to the field. In dc generators the field is
produced by the field magnets which are stationary. Permanent magnets are used for very
small capacity machines and electromagnets are used for large machines to create magnetic flux.
The conductors are situated on the periphery ofthe armature being rotated by the prime mover.
An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
whereas a generator is that machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical one.
As regards fundamental principles the dc motors are identical with the dc generators which
have the same type of excitation, i.e. a machine that operates as a motor will also operate
satisfactorily as a generator.
The only difference lies, however, in the mode of construction, which is due to the fact
that the frame of the generator can as a rule be open but those of motors should be either
partly or totally enclosed. A generator is usually placed in a suitable position and mechani-
cal protection for the coils and armature may be reduced to minimum. Also the generator is
handled by technical persons. Hence there is no risk in having the frame of the generator
open, which facilitates cooling, inspection and repair. On the other hand, motors have to
work in conditions of dampness, dirt, inflammable gases, ,. chemical fumes and liability to
267
A single turn rectangular copper conductor loop ABC D rotating in clockwise direct
about its own axis XX' in the uniform magnetic field is shown in Fig. 9.1. As the co~o~
rotated in the magnetic field by some mechanical means (not shown in the Fig.) the filS
linking with the loop changes continually, therefore, an emf is induced in it. The magnitu~
of emf induced at any instant is proportional to the rate of change of linking flux at th ~
instant and its direction is given by Fleming's right hand rule. a
While rotating at the instant the loop of wire ABC D assumes the position shown in
Fig. 9.1 (a) i.e. when the loop ABC D is just parallel to the faces of field magnets Nand S, the
flux linking with the loop is m8 imum but the rate of change of linking flux is zero, as at this
instant no flux is cut by the coil sides AB and CD which are just moving parallel to them. Hence
induced emf is zero when the loop is in this position. This position of the loop is known as

this position.
--
neutral position and let it be taken starting position and angle of rotation be measured from

ROTATION

A
s

(a) Armature Coil in Neutral Plane (b) Armature Coil in The 900 Position

~
x

(c) Armature Coil in The 1800 Position (d) Armature Coil in The 2700 Position
Fig. 9.1
As the coil is turned in clockwise direction at a constant speed, the coil sides begin to cut
across the field, slowly at first but at gradually increasing rate. Thus th~ magnitude tf emf
 DC Machines(Generatorsand Motors) 69)
. du ced
10 gradually increases a." the loop moves and becomes maXlmum when the loop
aSS Urnes the position shown in Fig. 9.1 (6). During this period the loop rotates through .!!.2
dians or 90" and induced emf in the loop increases following the sine law, as shown in Fig.
~a2.The direction of emf induced in the coil, as given by Fleming's right hand rule, is from
p,' to A and from D to C. In the position of the loop shown in Fig. 9.1 (6) the coil sides are
oving at right angles to the field and are, therefore, cutting across the field at maximum
ra , consequently, the emf induced at this instant is of maximum value. In the next quarter
1Ilte
o [the revolution of the loop i.e. between ~
_ radians and n radians (or 90 to 180), the rate at
which the conductors cut across the magnetic field gradually decreases, causing the magni-
tude of induced emf to fall gradually with the angular movement of the loop and becomes
zero at the instant the loop becomes again parallel to the faces of the field magnets but with
the sides AB and CD's position interchanged with n~::;pecttv zero position [Fig. 9.1 (c)J.
In the third quarter of the revolution of loop i.e.
A
between nand 321r radians (or 180 to 270) the rate at
which the conductors cut across the magnetic field
hence induced emf gradually increases as the loop moves
and becomes maximum at the instant, the loop as-
sumes the position shown in Fig. 9.1 (d). However, the
direction of emf in the loop is now from A to B and from
C to D i.e. opposite to that in the first two quarters. Fig. 9.2. Curve Shmvillg Variatioll of
In the fourth quarter of the revolution of the loop i.e. Illduced EMF ;11 a Coil Rotated ill a
3n Ulliform Magllelic Field
between T and 2n radians (or 270 to 360),the induced
emf decreases as the coil moves and becomes zero when it completes 2n radians or 360 from the
starting instant. At this instant the loopcomes to its absolute original position and hence the loop
is said to have completed one cycle. The cycle then repeats for each revolution of the armature.
The emfthus generated in the loop is of the form shown in Fig. 9.2 from which it is obvious
that emf induced in armature conductors is of pulsating nature. Such an emf is known as an
'J1.ternating emf.
The current induced in the coil is collected and conveyed to the external load circuit by
~onnecting the coil terminals to two continuous and insulated rings, known as slip rings or
;ollector rings, mounted on the generator shaft and making the two stationary brushes
Jressing against the slip rings, one brush bearing on each ring, as shown in Fig. 9.3. When the
:oil is rotated, the generated alternating emf causes a current to flow first in one direction and
;hen in the other through the coil and external circuit. Such a current is called an alternating
urrent.
To obtain the unidirectional or direct current in the external circuit, the collecting
Irrangement is modified as shown in Fig. 9.4. In this arrangement, the slip rings are replaced
'y split-ring made of a conducting material and splitted into two halves separated from
,ach other by insulation and brushes are placed diametrically opposite instead of being side
ty side.
It will be observed that in the first halfrevolution current flows along ABMLCDA i.e. the
Irush M in contact with segment 'a' acts as the + ve pole of the supply and brush L in contact
,ith segment '6' acts as the -ve pole.
In the next half revolution, the direction of induced currents in the coil is reversed, but
t the same time the positions of segments 'a' and '6' are also reversed, with the result that
rushes M and L again come in contact with +ve segment '6' and - ve segment 'a' respec-
lvely. Thus the direction of current in the external load circuit remains the same.
 --
ROTATION

B
i iX'

(a) Slip Rings (b) ::'plil Ring

LOAD
R
RESISTANCE

X
i EXTERNAL lOAD EXTERNAL lOAD

(c) (d)
Fig. 9.3. Elementary Generator With
Brushes ami Collector Rings Fig. 9.4

The position of the brushes shall be so arranged that the change of segments from one
segment to the other takes place when the plane of the rotating coil is perpendicular to the
plane of field, since in this position the induced emf or induced current in the coil will be
zero.
Thus the emf or current induced in the armature
conductors of a dc generator is alternating which is
rectified by the split-ring known as commutator.
Although after rectification the current through
the load circuit is always in the same direction, but it
is not a steady current since the emf generated in the
~i~Q
O' 90' 180' 270' 360' 450' 540' 630' 720'
-- COil POSITION IN DEGREES ----

armature coil and applied to the brushes, varies from Fig. 9.5. EMF Curve of a Simple
" DC Generator
zero to maximum and back to zero twice each revolu-
tion. The variation in brush voltage is shown in Fig. 9.5.
A pulsating direct current such as given by a ~ingJe coil generator is not suitable for
most commercial purposes. However, by employing a large number of coils and commutator
segments, with the coils evenly distributed around the surface of the armature the brush
voltage may be made practically constant.
The voltage generated by a single turn armature coil is small. For this reason, the coils
employed in commercial generators consist of several turns in series thereby increasing the
magnitude of generated emf in direct proportion to the numbe,r of the turns in the coil.
9.3. CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF DC MACHINE

DC machine (whether a generator or motor) with four poles is shown in Fig. 9.6. In construction,
dc machine consists of four parts mainly 1. Field magnets 2. Armature 3. Commutator
4. Brush and brush gear. Disassembled dc machine is shown in Fig. 9.7.
 BEARING

YOKE
OR
FRAME ~ TERMINAL
"IRG"P COVER

ARMATURE
CORE
EfSHIELD
\i
COMMUTATOR

Fig. 9.6. 4-Pole DC Machine Fig. -:;.7. DC Machi/If' (Dissassembled)

1. Field System. The object of the field system is to create a uniform magnetic field,
within which the armature rotates.
Electromagnets are preferred in comparison with permanent magnets on account of its
greater magnetic effect and its field strength regulation, which can be achieved by control-
ling the magnetising current. EXCITING COILS
Field magnet consists offour parts given below:
(i) Yoke or Frame (ii) Pole cores (iii) Pole shoes
and (iv) Magnetising coils
Cylindrical yoke is usually used which acts as a
frame of the machine and carries the magnetic flux
produced by the poles. In small machines, cast iron
yokes are used, because of cheapness but yoke of a
large machine is invariably made offabricated steel
due to its high permeability.
Pole core is usually of circular section and is
used to carry the coils of insulated wires carrying
the exciting (or field) current. The pole shoe acts as
a support to the field coils and spreads out the flux (a) 2-Pole DC Machine
over the armature periphery more uniformly and
also being of larger cross-section reduces the reluctance
of the magnetic path.
The field poles are usually formed of laminations (thin
sheets of steel) and are bolted to the frame or yoke to which
are also fastened the end bells with their bearings and the
brush rigging. In small machines the poles are cast integral
with the yoke from cast iron due to its low cost and less
machining required by individual parts. In some machines
the yoke and pole cores are made in single casting and
laminated pole shoes are attached to the pole cores.
The object of the magnetising or field coils is to provide,
under the various conditions of operation, the number of (b) 4-Pole DC Machine
ampere-turns of excitation required to give the proper flux Fig. 9.8. Complete Magnetic System
through the armature to induce the desired potential of a DC Machine
difference.The magnetic flux produced by the mmf developed
by the. field coils pass through the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature core and the yoke or
 ~. '-=rlllg

frame. In Fig. ~.S the dotted lines indicate the mean flux path through tht, complete n13.gn .
circuit. It will be seen that the flux divides through tv,,'Opaths from each pole through the ~c
There are several field constructions adopted according to the type of excilatio~o e.
sh unt field, many turns of fine wire are used, in series field few turns of large cros::;secti . III
area are used and in compound field both shunt and series windings are used. OUal
2. Armature. It is a rotating part of a dc machine SLOT \

and is built up in a cylindrical or drum shape. The .

purpose of armature is to rotate the conductors in the KEYw
y

uniform magnetic field. Ii consists of coils of insulated

wires wound around an iron and so arranged that electric
currents are induced in these wires when the armature
is rotated in a magnetic field. In addition. its most
important function is to provide a path of vcr;' low
reluctance to the magnetic flux. The armature core is
made from high permeability silicon-steel stampings,
each stamping being separated from its neighbouring Fig. 9.9. AmUlture Ullllillatioll
one by thin paper or thin coating ofvarnish as insulation.
A small air gap exists between the pole pieces and the armature so that there will be no
rubbing in the machine. The air gap length is about 1.0 mm to 6 mm (say 1 mm for a 1 kW
machine, 1.5 to 1.75 mm for medium size machines and 6 mm for 800 kW machine).
The use of high grade steel is made (a) to keep hysteresis loss low, which is due to cyclic
change ofmagnetisation caused by rotation ofthe core in the magnetic field and (6) to reduce
the eddy currents in the core which are induced by the rotation of the core in the magnetic
field. By using stampings or laminations, the path of the eddy currents is cut into several
units. The laminations must be in such a direction that they are perpendicular to the paths
of eddy currents and parallel to the flux. Each lamination is about 0.3 to 0.6 mm thick.
3. Commutator. The commutator is a form of rotating switch placed between the
armature and the external circuit and so arranged that it will reverse the connections to the
external circuit at the instant of each reversal of current in the armature coils.
TO ARMATURE COIL

(a) Commutator (b) Section View of Commutator Segments

Fig. 9.10
 It is very important part of a dc machine and serves the following purposes:
1. It provides the electrical connections between the rotating armature coils and LJ.
stationary external circuit.
2. As the armature rotates, it performs a switching action reversing the electrical
connections between the external circuit and each armature coil in turn so that the
armature coil voltages add together and result in a dc output voltage.
3. It also keeps the rotor or armature mmf stationary in space.
The commutator is essentially of cylindrical structure and is built up of wedge shaped
segments of high conductivity h~rd drawn cop?er or drop forged copper. These segments are
insulated from each other by thm layers of mIca (usually of 0.5 to 1 mm thickness). Mica is
to be preferred but cannot be used for large commutator because of the difficulty of obtaining
large sheets., making the cost of large mica segments prohibitive. On account of cost also
micanite is often used for small commutators. The segments are held together by means of
two V-shaped ri g::itha fit into the V-grooves cut into the segments.
The commutator is pressed on to the armature shaft, and the outer periphery is then
machined to provide a smooth surface with which a stationary carbon (or graphite or copper)
brush can maintain continuous contact as the armature and commutator rotate. Great care
is taken in building the commutator because even slight eccentricity will cause the brushes
to bounce, causing undue sparking.
4. Brushes. The function of brushes is to collect current from the commutator and
supply it to the external load circuit (the armature of the machine being connected to the
external load circuit via the commutator and
brushes). The brushes are rectangular in shape
and rest on the commutator. Brushes are manu-
factured in a variety of compositions and degrees
ofhardness to suit the commutation requirements.
They may be classified roughly as carbon, carbon
graphite, graphite, metal graphite and copper. The
allowable current density at the brush contact varies
from 5 A per square cm in case of carbon to 23 A HOLE FOR BRUSH BOLT
per square cm in the case of copper.
Fig. 9.11. Brush Holder
. The brushes are housed in brush-holders (usu-
ally of the box type) which are mounted on the brush holder studs or brackets.
5. Armature Winding. The insulated wires housed in armature slots are suitably
connected. This is called
the armature winding.
..
.. ..
..................

.. .. ..
,,,,,,,,,
I I
I I Yb-+-l
Armature winding plays Yb---+! I II I I
vital role in a dc machine. I I
YI -----...l I II Yf-+-l
[t is a place where con- I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
rersion of power takes I I
)lace i.e. conversion of me- .-
.- .-
I I
.-
,, .- .-
.-
.- .-
.- .-

.- .- .- .-
:hanical power into elec- .- .-

rical one in case of a gen-

rator and conversion RETROGRESSIVE
PROGRESSIVE
f electrical power into LAP WINDING
LAP WINDING
WAVE
lechanical one in case of WINDING
(a) (b)
lOtor. The armature Fig. 9.12 Fig. 9.13
 In lap winding. finish G~d of one \..oil is conE<::LLedt~ 0.. (;ommutat~r cgment and to the
start end ()f the :1djacent coIl und(:r the same pole awl slmllarly all enJ!s are connected. 'fh
winding is known as lap winding be~dul'e the sides of ::Icccs.si;"e c,jiJ. oycrbp ach windin e
Single turn lap winding is shown in Fig. 9.12 (a) and (b). In lap winding there are as lUa g.
parallel paths or ci1"cuits through the winding as there are field poles on the machine. L:Y
winding because of large number of parallel paths ~nd lesser number of conductors per pat~
is suitable for large current and low voltage machmcs.

W~V(:winding is also sometimes known a~ series win~in!r In w~ve ;vin~ing finish end of
one COllIS connected to the start of another call as shown m FIg. 9.13. Tnus m wave windinl1
the winding progresses, passing every N pole amI S pole till it no'turns to the coil sirle fro~
where it was st~rt.p(l Ar::. thl;' winding is ~'avy, the v.inding is, therefUJ e, called. wave wil1din.g.
The wave winding gives always two parallel paths irresppchve of numher of poles and
therefore, for a given number of poles ann armature condurtors, it gives more emf than th~
lap winding. Hence it is used for high voltage and low current machines.
6. Bearings. With small machines, ball bearings may be used at both ends. For larger
machines, roller bearings are used at the driving end, and ball hearings may be used at the
non-driving end, i.e. at the commutator end. Thrust bearings are used where excessive end
thrust is anticipated. Sleeve beanngs with ring lubrication are used for motors when very
silent running is required. For large machines pedestal bearings are generally used.
7. Shaft. The ~haft is made
of mild steel with a maximum
breaking strength. The shaft is
used to transfer mechanical
power from or to the machine.
The rotating parts such as
armature core, commutator, SHAFT DRIVING
END
cooling fan etc. are keyed to LOCKNUT
the shaft.
'-BEARING
Sectional view of a dc rotor
consisting of arm ture shaft, Fig. 9.14. Sectionall'iew of Rotor Assembly of a DC
armature core, armature wind- Machine
ing and commutator is illus-
trated in Fig. 9.14.
9.4. FUNCTION OF COMMUTATOR FOR GENERATiNG AND MOTOR ACTION

As mentioned in Art. 9.1, commutator is a device which under certain c0nditions converts
ac into dc and vice versa.
The commutator is a form of rotating switch placed betwel'ln the armature and exter-
nal circuit and so arranged that it reverses the connections to the external circuit at the
instant of each reversal of the current in the armature coil, as already explained in
Art. 9.2, and thus converts induced alternating currents .in armature coils into direct
currents in the external load circuit.
In case of a dc motor, a direct current passes through the brushes and commutator to
the armat.ure winding; while it passes through the commutator it is conyC'rted into ac so
that the group of conductors under successive field poles carry currents in opposite directions.