Columbian Exchange - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Columbian_Exchange

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Columbian Exchange was the widespread

transfer of plants, animals, culture, human
populations, technology, and ideas between the
Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th
centuries, related to European colonization and
trade after Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage.[1]
Invasive species of flora and fauna and
communicable diseases were a byproduct of the
Exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly
altered and changed global populations. However, New World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Maize
the most significant immediate impact of the (Zea mays) 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) 3. Potato
Columbian Exchange was the cultural exchanges (Solanum tuberosum) 4. Vanilla (Vanilla) 5. Par rubber tree
and the transfer of people between continents. (Hevea brasiliensis) 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) 7. Tobacco
Furthermore, a byproduct of the Columbian (Nicotiana rustica)
Exchange was the trans-Atlantic slave trade where
as many as 12.5 million enslaved African people
were forcibly transferred as a labor source to other
regions. [2]

The new contact between the global population

circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock,
which supported increases in population in both
hemispheres, although diseases initially caused
precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous
peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to
Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which Old World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Citrus
became very important crops in Europe by the 18th (Rutaceae); 2. Apple (Malus domestica); 3. Banana (Musa); 4.
century. Mango (Mangifera); 5. Onion (Allium); 6. Coffee (Coffea); 7.
Wheat (Triticum spp.); 8. Rice (Oryza sativa)
The term was first used in 1972 by American
historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental
history book The Columbian Exchange.[3] It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has
become widely known.

1 Origin of the term

2 Influence
2.1 Crops
2.1.1 Tomatoes
2.2 Livestock
2.3 Disease
2.4 Columbian Exchange and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
2.4.1 Context and relevant history

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2.4.2 The Beginning of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

2.4.3 The Scope and lasting Impact of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
2.5 Cultural Exchanges
3 Organism Examples
4 Later history
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian
Exchange.[3] This book covers the environmental impact of Columbus' landing in the new world.[4] The term has
become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and
updates Crosby's original research.[5]

Crops

Before AD 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South

America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that
the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease.[6]
Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much
of Europe. Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of
Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the
cultivation of the potato.[7] Maize and manioc, introduced to the
Portuguese from South America in the 16th century,[8] have Inca-era terraces on Taquile are used to grow
replaced sorghum and millet as Africa's most important food traditional Andean staples such as quinoa and
crops.[9] 16th-century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple potatoes, alongside wheat, a European
crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet introduction.
potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.[10]

Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their
ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cooking and,
ultimately, Italian food in general.[11] Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the
Middle East and sugar cane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export
commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and
potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.[12]

Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in
Hungary, no potatoes in Ireland, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees in Africa, no
chili peppers in Thailand, no tomatoes in Italy, and no chocolate in Switzerland.

Tomatoes

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It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to

become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to
Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In
large part this was due to 16th-century physicians believing that this
native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic
humours." In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and
botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of
anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato
was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of
Cosimo I de' Medici, then the Duke of Florence, wrote to the De'
Medici's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived
safely." At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, Portuguese trading animals in Japan;
melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.[13] detail of Nanban panel (15701616)

In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy.

For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovanvettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their
beauty" and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country
gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of
art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage
of Philip II of Spain wrote, "it is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces." Besides this account, tomatoes remained
exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato
sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are
cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.[13]

Livestock

Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New
World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle,
sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and
other uses.[14] One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native
American tribes in the mountains. They shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on
hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their
territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of
wealth.[15]

Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World
were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native
fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.[16]

Disease

European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective
treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at
least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes
among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle cell anemia.[1]:164

Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated
animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in
the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long-distance trade networks. Many had migrated west

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across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were
suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic
status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.

By contrast, "Old World" diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via
European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused
many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native
Americans, surpassing any wars[17] and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black
Death.[1]:164 It is estimated that upwards of 8095 percent of the Native American population died in these
epidemics within the first 100150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100%.[1]:165 The
beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread
of a well-documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518.[16] At that point in time,
approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.[16]

Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade.
Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of
death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where
numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century.
The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave-based sugar plantation.[16]
The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by
reducing the number of potential natural predators.[16] Yet, the means of the transmission was unknown until
1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be
female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.[16]

The history of syphilis has been well-studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a
subject of debate.[18] There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from
the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis
previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.[19] These are referred to as the "Columbian" and
"pre-Columbian" hypotheses.[19] The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493.[20]
The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494/1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles
VIII, during their invasion of Naples.[19][21][22][23]

Columbian Exchange and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

Context and relevant history

Prior to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, Columbus directly participated in and championed the slave trade. Upon
landing in what is now known and assumed to be San Salvador Island, Columbus encountered the Tano people.
In his journal of 1492, Columbus noted that

"It appears to me, that the people are ingenious and would be good servants and I am of opinion
that they would very readily become Christians, as they appear to have no religion. They very
quickly learn such words as are spoken to them. If it please our Lord, I intend at my return to carry
home six of them to your Highnesses, that they may learn our language".[24]

The idea of enslaving the Tainos had instantly struck Columbus as plausible, even desirable. "They ought to be
good servants," he continued, "and of good skill, for I see they repeat very quickly whatever was said to

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them.".[25] As part of his journey,

Columbus had planned to inaugurate a regular slave trade between the Indies and Spain. With gold
in short supply, the slave trade gradually took on greater urgency. Portugal and Genoa had their
slave trade, why not Spain? Columbus set about establishing a slave trade including both Caribs and
Tainos".[26]

However, it was not until the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands that the use of West African
people as slaves transformed the globe.

Following Columbus were a series of Spaniards seeking to expand the Spanish empire while at the same time
increasing their own power and wealth. Such an example was explorer Hernn Corts. Corts was interested in
expanding the Spanish-controlled lands and often disobeyed his rulers in the process. However, the Spanish
royalty was struggling to accurately define the policy related to the enslavement of the Tainos and other
Caribbean people. Mann notes that "obtaining the wealth of the Americas would involve subjugating people
who had committed no offense against Spain".[27] Like Cortez, Columbus angered the Spanish royalty through
subjugating and enslaving the native people. For example, Columbus sent 550 Taino to Seville in 1495.[28] The
parade of enslaved Taino in Seville angered Queen Isabella to the point that she ordered the Spanish to send the
enslaved people back to the Americas. By 1503, the Spanish solidified their policy through the implementation
of the encomienda system. This system was supposed to ensure the safety and freedom of the Taino and other
indigenous populations, while also converting them to Christianity. To achieve these goals, Spaniards were
appointed as trustees who oversaw the religious instruction and treatment of the people. However, the trustees
did not like working with the Taino, and the Taino resisted the efforts of the Spaniards. For the Taino, this
system represented a "legal justification for slavery" and the Spaniards justified the enslavement of the people
through arguing that the Taino were "less human than Europeans".[29] These earlier forays into the enslavement
of people laid the foundation for the future trans-Atlantic slave trade. Like other enslaved people, the Taino and
other enslaved Indians had periods of rebellion. Native Americans in what is now known as New Mexico
resisted early Spanish colonization and enslavement.

In recounting this event, it was said that

"what had happened was that the Indians, as soon as they saw that the forces were divided, began
to attack and kill. So this witness fell back immediately with his soldiers to rejoin the maese de
campo, followed by the Indians who had hitherto accompanied this witness. They paused the
Spaniards in large groups, and began to hurl countless stones, arrows, and clubs, not only from the
ground but from the terraces, both men and women participating in the attack." [30]

When the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands, the Spanish and other colonizers increased the
importation of Africans as enslaved laborers, altering global demographics.

The Beginning of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

The trans-Atlantic Slave Trade represents the largest migration in human history. While many Europeans
migrated to the Americas, it was enslaved Africans that dominated the North and South American continents.
The Columbian Exchange saw the rise of luxury goods which necessitated cheap or free labor to produce the
largest potential profit. One of these luxury goods was sugar. In the early history of Sugar, Islamic and

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European-owned plantations paid relatively high wages for this labor intensive and profitable crop. However, as
time progressed the European-sugar plantation owners reconsidered the use of highly paid labor and made the
transition to the exploitation of people to meet the growing global sugar demand.[31] In the 1440s, the
Portuguese discovered that the Madeira Islands were suited not to the growth of wheat but rather sugarcane. It
was in Madeira that the early system of Iberian slavery was transformed. Originally, the enslaved people who
worked on the Madeira sugarcane plantations were convicts, Guanches (persons from the Canary Islands),
Berbers (individuals from Northwest Africa), and Conversos (Iberian Jewish people). As time passed, these
early enslaved people were replaced by enslaved Africans from the West-Central African regions [32]).
Eventually, by the 1560s and 1570s sugarcane plantations in Brazil dominated the sugar industry and Madeira
switched from sugarcane production to wine.

The use of slave labor was not regulated to only the sugarcane plantations. Rather, slave labor was used in
coffee, tobacco and even grains such as rice. In these systems, the enslaved people had little power, however,
they did have some influence in agricultural methods. For example, in the rice production there is some
evidence that slaves from Africa utilized traditional methods in the production of rice. Furthermore, enslaved
Africans were responsible for growing their own food. In these cases, the enslaved people preferred rice that
was part of their culture as opposed to the European preference for Carolina rice. However, in a system of
power and control the slaves were eventually banned from using their preferred rice [33] Therefore, the system
of slavery transmitted not only the people but also their cultures to new regions.

The Scope and lasting Impact of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

Between 15011875, 9,374,975 people were enslaved as part of the Trans-Atlantic Slave trade and embarked to
various global regions [34] The overall impact of the chart is a demonstration of how many slaves died or were
lost on the voyage. The slave trade relocated more than 21 million enslaved Africans and placed them in the
Americas, Middle East, and other places where free labor was needed [35]

The establishment of the trans-Atlantic Slave trade and the influence of it is still evident in modernity. The
power differences related to skin color in global regions, and the lingering institutional racism can be traced to
the European justification of slavery and the African diaspora. Ultimately, the impact of the Columbian
Exchange of people and cultures has not always been positive. For example, the current sex tourism industry in
Brazil, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic have roots in the power differentials created from the trans-Atlantic
Slave trade. In addition to transforming the Americas, the trans-Atlantic Salve trade also impacted the regions
the enslaved Africans disembarked from. For example, the country of Angola continues to be plagued by an
uneven economic power system and a lack of national identity for the Angolans. Rather than a unified national
identity, narratives from the colonizers and modernity have resulted in a definition of Angolan identity which
has contradiction and these narratives are often competing [36] [37]

Cultural Exchanges

One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article
"The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 15001800" Pieter Remmer makes the point that
"from 1500 onward, a 'clash of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic".[38] This clash of culture transferred
European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there
were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and
children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor".[39] An example of this type of cultural
exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered
North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For
these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for

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the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established
culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger
cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the
Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization" they set about transforming "the land into something
more suitable for themselves".[40] It must be noted that in implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved,
murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular,
enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time
justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave
traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people.
In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions.
An example of this can be found in the Tobacco industry.

Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian Exchange. As is
discussed in regard to the trans-Atlantic Slave trade, the Tobacco Industry resulted in increased demands for
free labor and the spread of Tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish
physician Nicolas Monardes (14931588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the
Indies, has taken the same manner and use of the Tobacco, that the Indians have".[41] As the European
colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous people they took the
cultural practices related to tobacco, adopted them, and then spread them to additional regions. As such, there
were growing demands for tobacco which were linked to the cultural exchanges and increased contact between
people.

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Post-Columbian transfers of native organisms with close ties to humans

Type of
Old World to New World New World to Old World
organism

cat (domestic wild species

already present)
cattle
chicken
donkey
goat (the goats of the Old World,
genus Capra, are different from the
alpaca
mountain goat of the New World,
guinea pig
Domesticated genus Oreamnos)
llama
animals guineafowl
Muscovy duck
honey bee (European honey bee
turkey
other wild and domesticated
species already present)
horse
rabbit (domestic)
pig
sheep (domestic)
water buffalo

almond achira (Canna

apple indica)
apricot agave
asparagus allspice
banana (including plantains) amaranth (as grain)
barley arrowroot or
basil Maranta
beet arundinacea
bitter melon avocado
Brassica oleracea-derived bell pepper
vegetables cashew
broccoli chili pepper
Brussels sprouts chirimoya
cabbage cocoa
cauliflower common bean
collard greens (pinto, lima,
kale kidney, etc.)
Cultivated
cantaloupe cotton (long-staple
plants
carrot species)
celery cranberries (large
chickpea cranberry, or
citrus (orange, lemon, etc.) bearberry species)
coffee culantro
coriander (also known as cilantro) custard apple
cucumber feijoa (pineapple
cumin guava, Brazilian
eggplant guava, guavasteen)
fennel guava (common)
fig Jerusalem
flax artichoke
garlic jicama
ginger leren (Calathea
hemp (including cannabis) allouia)
leek maize (corn)
lentil manioc (cassava,

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tapioca, yuca)
lettuce
papaya
mango
passionfruit
millet
peanut
oat
pecan
oil palm
pineapple
okra
pitaya (dragon
olive
fruit)
onion
potato
opium
prickly pear
oregano
(Opuntia ficus-
pea
indica)
peach
pumpkin
pear
quinoa
pistachio
sapodilla
pomegranate
soursop
radish
squash
rice
stevia
rye
strawberry
sesame
(commercial
sorghum
varieties)
soybean
sugar-apple
spinach
sunflower
sugarcane and sugar beets
sweet potato
turmeric
tobacco
turnip
tomato
watermelon
vanilla
wheat
yerba mate
yam (sometimes misnamed "sweet
yucca
potato")
zucchini (courgette)

bubonic plague
chicken pox
cholera
diphtheria
influenza
leprosy
bejel
malaria
Infectious Chagas disease
measles
diseases pinta
scarlet fever
syphilis (disputed)
smallpox
typhoid
typhus
whooping cough
yaws
yellow fever

Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced
to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced
by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants
introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help
control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.

Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in

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North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species
have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments.
[42][43] A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast

responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.[44]

In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either
accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from
parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.[45] Escaped and feral
populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting
or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are
common, and Burmese pythons are considered problematic. In the Old World Gray squirrels have been
particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some
regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have
extensive populations. Canada geese are also common.

Alfred Crosby
Domestication
Great American Interchange
Glossary of invasion biology terms
Guns, Germs, and Steel
Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World
List of food plants native to the Americas
Population history of American indigenous peoples
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
Transformation of culture
1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created
1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus

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(http://scitizen.com/biotechnology/maize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-
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16. Palmi, Stephan (2011). The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples. Chicago: University of
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/variables/smallpox.html), Guns, Germs and Steel, PBS Archived (https://www.webcitation.org
/5mr1L9bc6?url=http://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html) 17 January 2010 at
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The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds
(http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nattrans/ntecoindian/essays/columbian.htm) by Alfred W.
Crosby (2009)
Worlds Together, Worlds Apart (http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/worlds-together-worlds-
apart3/) by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al.
Foods that Changed the World (https://web.archive.org/web/20150510082054/http:
//www.accessexcellence.org/RC/Ethnobotany/page5.php) by Steven R. King from the Wayback Machine
The Columbian Exchange (http://www.shmoop.com/columbian-exchange/) video, study guide, analysis,
and teaching guide

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