Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and rigidity of

structures. The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure
capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended life. The primary purpose
of a structure is to transmit or support loads. If the structure is improperly designed or
fabricated, or if the actual applied loads exceed the design specifications, the device will
probably fail to perform its intended function, with possible serious consequences. A well-
engineered structure greatly minimizes the possibility of costly failures.

Structural Design Process

A structural design project may be divided into three phases, i.e. planning, design and
construction.

Planning: This phase involves consideration of the various requirements and factors affecting
the general layout and dimensions of the structure and results in the choice of one or perhaps
several alternative types of structure, which offer the best general solution. The primary
consideration is the function of the structure. Secondary considerations such as aesthetics,
sociology, law, economics and the environment may also be taken into account. In addition
there are structural and constructional requirements and limitations, which may affect the type of
structure to be designed.

Design: This phase involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions defined in the
planning phase and results in the determination of the most suitable proportions, dimensions
and details of the structural elements and connections for constructing each alternative
structural arrangement being considered.

Construction: This phase involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of materials and

equipment, including their transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection. During this
phase, some redesign may be required if unforeseen difficulties occur, such as unavailability of
specified materials or foundation problems.

Structural Design Procedure

The structural design of any structure first involves establishing the loading and other
design conditions, which must be supported by the structure and therefore must be considered
in its design. This is followed by the analysis and computation of internal gross forces, (i.e.
thrust, shear, bending moments and twisting moments), as well as stress intensities, strain,
deflection and reactions produced by loads, changes in temperature, shrinkage, creep and other
design conditions. Finally comes the proportioning and selection of materials for the members
and connections to respond adequately to the effects produced by the design conditions.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel as Structural Material

The advantages of steel over other materials for construction

1. It has high strength per unit mass. Hence even for large structures, the size of steel
structures elements is small, saving space in construction and improving aesthetic view.

2. It has assured quality and high durability.

3. Speed of construction is another important advantage of steel structure. Since Standard

sections of steel are available which can be prefabricated in the workshop, they may be
kept ready by the time the site is ready and the structure erected as soon as the site is
ready. Hence there is lot of saving in construction time.

4. Steel Structures can be strengthened at any later time, if necessary. Its needs just
welding additional Sections.

5. By using bolted connections, steel structures can be easily dismantled transported to

other sites quickly.

6. If Joints are taken care, it is the best water and gas resistant structure. Hence can be
used for making water tanks also.

7. Materials is reusable.

The Disadvantages of steel structures are:

1. It is susceptible to corrosion. Steel is susceptible to corrosion in outdoor atmospheres.
Corrosion is the destruction of a metal due to its reaction with atmospheric oxygen. This
electrochemical oxidation produces metal oxide, or rust.
2. Maintenance cost is high, since it needs painting to prevent corrosion. . Oftentimes, steel
structures are enclosed in gypsum block, masonry block, gypsum board and clay tile
enclosures that protect them from heat. These enclosures are typically expensive and
require additional maintenance.
 3. Fire proofing cost. Although steel elements, such as stand-alone structures, are
incombustible, their strength reduces at high temperatures due to fire or when other
materials within a building burn, making them susceptible to buckling. Furthermore,
steel, being an excellent conductor of heat, ignites materials in contact and causes fires
which rapidly spread to other sections of a building. Steel structures may require
additional fireproofing, and buildings may need to be installed with appropriate sprinkler
systems, as defined by building-code requirements of a particular locality.
4. Fatigue and fracture. Steel elements are susceptible to fatigue. Large variations in
tensile strength expose steel elements to excessive tension, which reduces its overall
strength. Steel is also susceptible to brittle fracture when it loses its ductility. This
increases its chances of buckling, which is typically counterbalanced by adding
expensive steel columns that stiffen the primary structure.

Properties of Structural Steel

There are different properties which affect the performance of structural steel material. It is with
the knowledge of these steel material properties that steel is transformed into various shapes for
applications in the field of construction.
Density
The mass per unit volume of a material is referred to as its density. The density of steel ranges
from 7.85 g/cubic cm - 8.1 g/cubic cm.
Thermal Properties
The temperature of austenizing and melting temperature are the important thermal steel
properties. Temperature at which iron is converted into austenite crystal structure is referred to
as austenizing temperature

Tensility
It is the property which determines the limit up to which a steel material can be stretched without
breaking. Fracture point is used to gauge the tensility of a given steel material. It is at the
fracture point that the steel material breaks after being subjected to stress.
Yield Strength
The capacity to resist deformity is referred to as yield strength of structural steel. The minimum
force at which deformation could take place is measured in order to determine the yield
strength. Crystalline and atomic structure of steel changes as a result of deformation.
Elasticity
The property of elasticity need to be understood without confusing it with yield strength.
Deformation of steel takes place while it is under stress. Point of deformation is the limit for
measuring the elasticity of a particular material. The Young's modulus of elasticity is used in the
measurement of this property.
Codes and Specification of Steel
 Design Philosophies

1. Working stress method (WSM)

This was the traditional method of design not only for reinforced concrete, but also for
structural steel and timber design. The method basically assumes that the structural material
behaves as a linear elastic manner, and that adequate safety can be ensured by suitably
restricting the stresses in the material induced by the expected working loads on the
structure.
2. Ultimate load method (ULM)
With the growing realization of the short comings of WSM in reinforced concrete design,
and with increased understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete at ultimate loads, the
ultimate load of design is evolved and became an alternative to WSM.In this method, the stress
condition at the site of impending collapse of the structure is analyzed, and the nonlinear stress-
strain curves of concrete and steel are made use of. The concept of modular ratio and its
associated problems are avoided entirely in this method. The safety measure design is
introduced by an appropriate choice of the load factor, defined as the ratio of the ultimate load to
the working load. This method generally results in more slender sections, and often economical
designs of beams and columns, particularly when high strength reinforcing steel and concrete
are used.
3. Limit state method (LSM):-
The philosophy of the limit state method of design represents a definite advancement
over the traditional design philosophies. LSM aims for a comprehensive and rational solution to
the design problem, by considering safety at ultimate loads and serviceability at working
loads. The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format which attempts to provide
adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at service loads, by
considering all possible Limit State.
Limits States
A limit state is a state of impending failure, beyond which a structure ceases to perform its
intended function satisfactorily, in terms of either safety of serviceability i.e. it either collapses or
becomes unserviceable.There are two types of limit states:

Ultimate limit states (limit states of collapse) which deal with strength, overturning, sliding,
buckling, fatigue fracture etc.
Serviceability limit states which deals with discomfort to occupancy and/ or malfunction,
caused by excessive deflection, crack width, vibration leakage etc., and also loss of durability
etc.

Common Structural Steel Shapes

The shapes available are described in many published standards worldwide, and a number of
specialist and proprietary cross sections are also available.

I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal Beams (UB) and
Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL, HD and other sections; in
the US it includes Wide Flange (WF or W-Shape) and H sections)

Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)

HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow section) and
including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross sections)

Angle (L-shaped cross-section)

Structural channel, or C-beam, or C cross-section

Tee (T-shaped cross-section)

Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)

 Railway rail

Vignoles rail

Flanged T rail

Grooved rail

Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so wide so as
to be called a sheet.

Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal, see also rebar and dowel.

Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 14 in.

Open web steel joist

While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat or
bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow sections are made from flat plate bent into a
circle and seam-welded).

The terms angle iron, channel iron, and sheet iron have been in common use since
before wrought iron was replaced by steel for commercial purposes. They have lived on after
the era of commercial wrought iron and are still sometimes heard today, informally, in reference
to steel angle stock, channel stock, and sheet, despite that they are misnomers (compare "tin
foil" still sometimes used informally for aluminum foil). In formal writing for metalworking
contexts, accurate terms like angle stock, channel stock, and sheet are used.

UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

 ASSIGNMENT NO. 1

SUBMITTED BY:

REALYN A. CANTOS

1300178

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JAKE MARAMOT