RADIOGRAPHY

OBJECTIVES
To:
understand the principle of radiographic
testing methods
Know the technique of testing
Become familiar with standards & codes
Learn the applications.
 INTRODUCTION
Radiography:
one of the oldest & the most widely used NDT which
uses X-rays or -rays radiation to examine the interior
of the materials.
gives a permanent film record of defects that is easy
to interpret.
applied for assessing the quality of the welded joints
also.
can detect flaws or discontinuities in welds such as
cracks, porosity & blow holes, slag, flux or oxide
inclusions, lack of fusion between the weld metal &
the parent metal, incomplete penetration, tungsten
inclusion, etc.
 PROPERTIES OF X- RAYS & - RAYS
X- rays are highly penetrating electromagnetic
radiations of wave length shorter than UV-rays (X-
rays: 5 to 0.0004A, - rays: 0.1 to 0.005A)
These rays have the following properties:
Invisible electromagnetic radiations.
Can penetrate matter. Penetration is less if density of
matter is more and thickness is more
Are differentially absorbed.
Travel in straight lines.
Produce photochemical effects on films.
May be refracted, reflected and diffracted
Damage living tissues
Ionise gases through which it pass.
 PRINCIPLE
Both X-rays & -rays are very short wave length
electro magnetic radiation which penetrate opaque
materials & obtain a permanent record of the result
on sensitized film.
When these rays pass through a material having
defects, the rays passing through the less denser
parts of the object are absorbed to a smaller extent
than the rays passing through the adjacent sound
material (because of difference in density & thickness
of the test piece) & are allowed to fall on a light
sensitive film placed on the back side of the object to
be radiographed.
 Contd-
After exposure for the prescribed time, the film is
developed.
The contrast (difference in density) on the developed
film between the image of an area containing a
defect & the image of a defect free area of the
specimen permits the observer to distinguish the
flaw.
The film is called exograph, if X-rays are used &
gamma ray graph, if -rays are used.
Both types of film are called radiograph
(photographic record of defects)
 GENERATION OF X-RAYS
X-rays are produced by an X-ray tube.
An X- ray tube is an evacuated tube, usually made of
glass, containing an electrically heated filament
which liberates electrons & a tungsten anode.
The electrons liberated from the heated filament are
made to impact on the anode with the help of large
PD (50 to 2000KV) between the filament & the
anode.
X-rays are emitted due to the impact of high velocity
electrons on the anode.
 Contd-----
Only about 1% of the total electron energy is converted
into X-rays & the rest of it transforms into heat due to
which the anode is heated to a very high temp & a device
to cool the anode by water or oil is necessary.
The X-rays come out of the tube through a window in the
form of a beam.
The intensity of X-rays is directly proportional to the
filament current & the wave length is inversely
proportional to the voltage between the cathode &
anode.
Both the voltage & the current can be varied due to
which the tube may be adjusted over a wide range of
operating characteristics depending upon the material to
be radiographed.
GENERATION OF X-RAYS
 METHOD OF TESTING
The X-ray tube, components to be tested & film are set
up as shown in the fig
The X-rays are allowed to fall upon the test piece
A cassette containing film is placed behind & in contact
with the component lar to the rays.
Since most defects possess lesser density than the
sound parent metal, they transmit X-rays or -rays
better than the sound metal does, therefore the film
appears to be more dark where defects are in line of the
beam.
Usually a penetrameter is placed on the side of the
source adjacent to the weld.
Thickness of the penetrameter is usually 2% of the
thickness of the weld joint.
MARKING OF RADIOGRAPHIC LOCATION, DIRECTION OF
WELD BEAD AND PLACING OF PENETROMETER
WELDED COMPONENT
SETTING UP OF CASSETTE
X-RAY MACHINE
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
 GENERATION OF - RAYS

rays, are produced by a radioactive isotope

(Radium, Radon, Cobalt, Iridium, Cesium, Thalium,
Europium, Cerium, Xenon, Tantalum, etc).
The gamma ray source (300 mg) is housed in a lead
or tungsten alloy container of sufficient thickness to
provide necessary protection.
VARIOUS TYPES OF ISOTOPES FOR RADIOGRAPHY ( - RAYS)

Co 60 : This has a half-life of 5.3 years. This is used for

radiography of thicker sections of steel (between 2 to
6).
Ir192 : This has a half-life of 72 days. This is used for
thin section. Ir192 will give better radiographic
sensitivity than Co 60 .
Cs137 : This half-life of 30 years. Suitable for
radiographic examination of steel sections of 1.5 to
2.5 inches.
 - RAYS
 - RAYS TESTING
 PRECAUTION
Every radiation worker and area require some
radiation measurment method in order to
have safty aspect
There are two type of radiation monitoring
instrument
Personnel monitoring
Lab /area monitoring
Portable unit measuring range upto 20 mr /hr
TLD Thermo Luminenscec Dosimeter
Film Badge Reader.
 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Basically X-ray film is made of:
Base: a transparent blue tinted cellulose derivated
Emulsion: consists of gelatin containing microscopic,
radiation sensitive silver halide crystals such as silver
bromide & iodide
Usually, the emulsion is coated on both sides of
the base in layers about 0.0005 inch thick.
Putting emulsion on both sides of the base
doubles the amount of radiation-sensitive silver
halide & thus increases the film speed.
 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

The emulsion layers are thin enough so

developing, fixing & drying can be accomplished
in a reasonable time.
The emulsion is very sensitive & when x-ray, -
ray strikes it, a change takes place in its physical
structure.
The change is of a nature that it cannot be
detected by ordinary physical method. However,
when the exposed film is processed
 FILM PROCESSING
When the film is processed, it is exposed to several
different chemicals solutions for controlled periods of
time. Processing film basically involves the following
four steps.
Development - The developing agent gives up
electrons to convert the silver halide grains to
metallic silver. Grains that have been exposed to the
radiation develop more rapidly, but given enough
time the developer will convert all the silver ions into
silver metal. Wash the developer away with water
Fixing - Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed
by the fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only silver
halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.
 Contd-----FILM PROCESSING
Washing - The film is washed with water to
remove all the processing chemicals.
Drying - The film is dried for viewing.
Processing film is a strict science governed by
rigid rules of chemical concentration,
temperature, time, and physical movement.
 FILM HANDLING
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid
physical strains, such as pressure, creasing, buckling,
friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible
holders and external clamping devices are used, care
should be taken to be sure pressure is uniform.
Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist
or contaminated with processing chemicals, as well as
crimp marks, are avoided if large films are always grasped
by the edges and allowed to hang free.
Clean towels should be kept close at hand to dry the
hands.
Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film
rapidly from cartons, exposure holders, or cassettes.
 VIEWING RADIOGRAPHS
Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray
or gamma radiation) are generally viewed on a
light-box.
Because the energy of electromagnetic
radiation is directly related to their frequency,
X rays are much more energetic and
penetrating than light waves as well.
 INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPH
For successful interpretation of a radiograph, one
should have as wide a knowledge of the form of
images characteristics or various defects. A radiograph
contains light & dark areas. The latter representing
parts of the material having a lower density. Various
defects appear on the negatives of a radiographs as
follows:-
Gas cavities & blow holes appear as well defined
circular dark areas
Shrinkage cavity appears as a fibrous irregular dark
region having an indistinct outline
 INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPH
Cracks are indicated by darkened areas of
variable width
Sand inclusions appear as grey or black spots
of an uneven or granular texture with
indistinct boundaries.
Inclusions in castings appear as dark spots of
definite outline. In light alloys, the inclusions
may be of high density & thus cause light
spots.
 CONDITION FOR GOOD RADIOGRAPHY
The distance between the source and the
material under test should be always as great
as in practical.
The film should be as close as possible to the
object being radiographed.
The central rays should be as nearly
perpendicular to the film as possible to
minimize distortion.
ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE OF X-RAY -RAY
Advantages:
X-ray - ray
Exposure times much suitable for out door
shorter Portable because the source is small.
More sensitive & is better Very suitable for out door work & in
on extremely thin sections. confined spaces, since it requires neither
electric power nor water supply for
operation.
Disadvantages:
X-ray - ray
Requires trained operator Requires trained operator
Involves radiation hazards Requires more exposure time due to lower
sensitivity which involves more radiation hazards
involves radiation hazards
source loses strength continuously
Trained operator is required
 RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

Neutron radiography:-
It is used to solve complex problem that can not be
solved by X-rays or Y-rays. It is used for detecting
internal cracks of very light materials like plastic,
rubber components, etc.