I.

Electrodynamics and CRO Cathode ray tube, Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO),
Applications of CRO, Types of CROs Diode Characteristics and Applications Basic
applications of PN diode, Characteristics of a PN diode, Diode equivalent circuits,
Diode specifications, Volt-ampere characteristics of PN diode, Diode testing,
Varactor diode, Applications of varactor diode, Salient features of varactor diode,
Zener diode, Applications of zener diode, Salient features of zener diode, Light
Emitting Diode, Salient features of LED, Applications of LED, Varistor diode, Photo
diode, Applications of photo diode II. Rectifiers and DC Power Supplies
Introduction, Half-wave rectifier , Full-wave rectifier , Bridge rectifier , Comparative
characteristics of rectifier circuits, Filter circuits , Inductor filter in half-wave
rectifier, Inductor filter with full-wave rectifier, Half-wave rectifier with capacitor
filter, Fullwave rectifier with capacitor filter. III. Transistor characteristics and
applications Introduction, Operation of the transistor, Transistor configurations,
Current amplification factor, a, Relation between a and , Differences among the
parameters of CE, CB and CC transistor configurations, Switching times in
transistors, Applications of transistors, Testing of transistors, Transistor terminal
identification Field Effect Transistors Classification of field effect transistors,
Junction field effect transistors (JFET), The salient features of JFET, Comparative
characteristics of JFET and BJT, Merits of JFET, JFET characteristics, Drain
characteristics, Comparison of CS, CD and CG JFET amplifier, Applications of
JFETs, Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), Enhancement
type MOSFET, Depletion type MOSFET, Salient features of enhancement and
depletion type of MOSFET, Comparison between JFET and MOSFET. IV. Feedback
Amplifiers Introduction, Expression of gain with feedback, First classification of
feedback amplifiers, Negative feedback amplifier, Positive feedback, Second
classification of feedback amplifiers, Characteristics of negative feedback amplifier,
Characteristics of positive feedback, Effect of negative feedback on gain stability,
Effect of negative feedback on bandwidth, Effect of negative feedback on distortion,
Effect of negative feedback on non-linear distortion, Effect of negative feedback on
noise, The net effects of feedback circuits, Comparative characteristics of feedback
and nonfeedback amplifiers, Applications of negative feedback, Typical feedback
circuits, Comparison between the parameters of voltage and current feedback
circuits. V. Power Amplifiers Introduction, Classification of power amplifiers, Class
A amplifier, Class B amplifier, Class AB amplifier, Class C amplifier, Class D
amplifier, Class A large signal power amplifier, Efficiency of class A power amplifier,
Transformer coupled class A power amplifier, Efficiency of transformer coupled
class A power amplifier, Class B power amplifier, Push-pull amplifier, Merits of
push-pull amplifier, Demerits, Class B push-pull amplifier, Operation of class B
push-pull amplifier, Class AB push-pull amplifier, Performance of power amplifiers,
Characteristics of power amplifier, Complementary symmetry push-pull class B
power amplifier, Heat sinks, Definition of derating factor Power Devices Unijunction
transistor (UJT), Construction, Principle of operation, Definition of stand-off ratio,
Application of UJT, Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), Construction and operation,
Equivalent circuit, Volt-ampere characteristics of SCR, Features of SCR,
Applications of SCR, The diac, Construction of diac, Salient features of diac, Volt-
ampere characteristics of diac, Applications, Triac, Symbol of triac, Construction,
Equivalent circuit, Operation, V-I characteristics of triac VI. Oscillators Definition of
oscillator, Definition of generator, Conditions for oscillators, Bharkhausen criteria,
The characteristics of oscillators, Classification of oscillators, Sinusoidal oscillators,
Relaxation oscillators, RC phase shift oscillator, Salient features of RC phase
 oscillator, Wein bridge oscillator, Expression for frequency of oscillation, Salient
features of wein bridge oscillator, Colpitts oscillator, Expression for the frequency of
oscillation, Salient features of colpitts oscillator, Hartley oscillator, Expression for
frequency, The crystal oscillator, Differences between rectifiers, amplifiers and
oscillators VII. Operational Amplifiers and Applications Introduction to integrated
circuits (ICs), Salient features of op-amps, Symbol of opamp, Classification of
integrated circuits, Differences between linear and digital ICs, Characteristics of an
ideal op-amp, Applications of operational amplifiers, The equivalent circuit of op-
amp, Definitions of op-amp parameters, Frequency sensitive parameters of op-amp,
Temperature sensitive parameters, Applications of linear ICs, Typical op-amps,
Salient features of op-amp series, Specifications of A 741, Virtual ground concept,
Applications of op-amp, Typical pin designations of op-amp.
II.
M3
http://cdn.timurkaripov.netdna-
cdn.com/readonline/5a5668486541463758333136446e746e5530593d

http://textofvideo.nptel.iitm.ac.in/114106026/lec11.pdf
http://www.scribd.com/doc/13993024/Preliminary-Ship-Design#scribd

https://books.google.co.in/books?
id=Uq07g98n0TAC&pg=PA35&dq=sectional+area+curve+ship&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6
AEwAGoVChMIpZ7697PqxwIVzXCOCh0MWQIw#v=onepage&q=sectional%20area
%20curve%20ship&f=false

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5sdd8SS7Bhg

http://www.thenavalarch.com/
http://www.boatdesign.net/
http://www.mnvdet.com/Resistance%20&%20Powering.htm

RESISTANCE OF SHIPS
Prof O.P.Shah
 RESISTANCE OF SHIPS OUTLINE

1. Introduction : Definition of resistance and effective power, importance of subject, brief

history Newton, Euler, Leonardo da Vinci, Chapman, DAlembert, Beaufoy, Hall brothers
etc. Reech and W. Froude.
2. Components of Resistance : Simplification of difficult problem. Components assumed to
be independent. Different components.
3. Laws of Similarity : Use of models. Need for similarity laws. Geometrical, kinematic
and kinetic similarity. Force ratios. Dimensional analysis. Practical applicationin ship
resistance. Froude similarity and model testing.
4. Viscous Resistance : Froudes plank experiments. R.E. Froudes formula for f. Reynolds
number. Boundary layer theory. Laminar and turbulent flow. Turbulence stimulation.
Blasius and Prandtl-Karman lines. Other friction lines : Schoenherr, Prandtl-Schlichting,
Hughes, and others. Form resistance Hughes, Lap-Troost, Granville. ITTC line.
Grigsons formulation. Effect of roughness. Nikuradses pipe experiments. Roughness
allowance. Bowdens formula. Fouling. Anti-fouling paints, SPC paints, banning of TBT.
5. Wave Resistance : Kelvin wave pattern. Ship waves. Wave interference humps and
hollows. Theoretical methods. Comparison with experiments. Bulbous bows.
6. Other Resistance Components : Eddy resistance and boundary layer separation. Wave
breaking resistance and vortex resistance. Appendage drag. Air and wind resistance.
7. Effect of Shallow Water : Schlichtings method. Landwebers extension.
8. Model Testing : Ship model tanks. Model size. Turbulence stimulation. Blockage. Ship
model correlation.
9. Prediction of Effective Power : Methodical series and regression equation methods.
Resistance of submerged bodies.
10. Hull form and Resistance
11. High Speed Marine Craft
 1. INTRODUCTION

Definitions

The resistance of a ship is the force that resists the motion of the ship. For the present
study, the resistance R of a ship is the force that opposes the forward motion of the ship at a
constant speed V in a straight line in still water. The power required to overcome this resistance
is called the effective power PE :

PE = R V

If the resistance is in kN and the speed in m per sec, the effective power will be in kW. The
speed of the ship is often given in knots : 1 knot is a speed of 1 nautical mile per hour, one
(international) nautical mile is equal to1852 m, so that 1 knot is 0.5144 m per sec.

It is important to study the subject of Ship Resistance because (a) it is necessary to

determine the effective power at the design speed so that an appropriate propulsion system may
be fitted to the ship, and (b) it is desirable to design the hull form of the ship so as to minimize
its resistance subject to the various design constraints.

1.2 History

The importance of the subject was realized in ancient times and considerable effort was
devoted to determining the shape of a hull form of minimum resistance. In the course of time,
very efficient hull forms were developed empirically for the ships of the day. Many leading
scientists and mathematicians, Newton (1642-1727) and Euler (1707-1783) among them, studied
the problem. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1509) is believed to have proposed the use of models to
study the subject. Among the earliest to carry out ship model experiments was the Swedish
naval architect Frederic Chapman (1721-1808). The French Academy of Sciences offered a
prize for an experimental study of ship resistance, and the prize was won by a group that
included DAlembert (1717-1783). Experiments were also carried out by Beaufoy in England,
the Hall brothers in Scotland and Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) in America towards the end of
the 18th century. The beginning of the 19th century brought mechanical propulsion of ships to the
forefront, and the problem of estimating the power required to propel a given ship at a specified
speed. Early model experiments proved to be unsuccessful in providing a solution to this
problem because the relation between the resistance of a model and the resistance of a ship was
not properly understood. In 1832, a French naval constructor, Edmund Reech, proposed that the
ratio of the resistance of a ship to the resistance of a geometrically similar model was equal to
the ratio of their displacements provided that their speeds were proportional to the square roots
of their lengths. However, even this did not provide correct results. Model experiments had
become discredited by the latter half of the 19 th century, and were in danger of being abandoned
altogether when William Froude (1810-1879) proposed that by dividing the resistance into two
components, each of which followed different scaling laws, the model experiment could indeed
be used to predict the resistance of a ship with sufficient accuracy. The British Navy gave a
grant to Froude to build a tank for model experiments and demonstrate the correctness of his
proposal. Froude built his tank in Torquay and carried out various experiments, including
experiments with a model of HMS Greyhound. The resistance of the ship was determined by
towing HMS Greyhound by another ship, and this confirmed that the method proposed by
Froude gave accurate results. Froudes ship model tank was followed by similar establishments
in various parts of the world. In India, there are ship model tanks at the Central Water and
Power Research Station (CWPRS), Pune, IIT Kharagpur, IIT Madras and the Naval Science and
Technological Laboratory (NSTL), Visakhapatnam. The last is a very large modern
establishment.
 2. COMPONENTS OF TOTAL RESISTANCE

2.1 Main Components

The total resistance of a ship is due to several causes and the phenomena involved are
extremely complicated. It is therefore usual to simplify the problem by regarding the total
resistance to be composed of several components independent of each other and to disregard the
possible interaction between the different components. For a ship moving at the surface of
water, the total resistance is composed of the resistance of the above water part of the ship (air
and wind resistance or aerodynamic resistance) and the resistance of the underwater part of the
ship (hydrodynamic resistance). The hydrodynamic resistance can be divided into the resistance
of the bare hull and the resistance of the appendages such as rudders, bilge keels, stabilizer fins
and sonar domes.

In this section, only the hydrodynamic resistance of the bare hull and its components are
considered. Aerodynamic resistance and the resistance of appendages is taken up later.

2.2 Components of Bare Hull Resistance

The resistance of the bare hull can be divided into two main components in two ways. In
the first approach, the total resistance RT of the bare hull is divided into components according
to their causes. When the hull moves at or near the surface of water, the motion is resisted by
the viscosity of water. The motion of the hull also generates waves at the surface and this gives
rise to a component of resistance. The causes of the resistance are thus the viscosity of water
and the waves generated by the ship :

RT = RV + RW

where RV is the viscous resistance and RW the wave resistance. It is important to note that the
total resistance has been defined here as the resistance of the bare hull in water. The total
resistance of the ship must of course include the aerodynamic resistance and the appendage
resistance. Note also that wave resistance (or wave-making resistance) is due to the waves
generated by the ship in calm water; the additional resistance due to the motion of the ship in
waves already present in the sea is called added resistance in waves and is considered separately.

The second approach looks at the effect of the motion of the hull in water, viz. the
creation of stresses tangential to the surface (friction) and normal to the surface (pressure) :

RT = RF + RP

where RF is the frictional resistance and RP the pressure resistance.

2.3 Viscous Pressure Resistance

 The viscosity of water also alters the pressure distribution around the hull, and thereby
causes an increase in the pressure resistance. That part of the pressure resistance that is due to
viscosity is called the viscous pressure resistance RVP, and :

RVP = RV - RF = RP - RW

or :

RT = RV + RW = ( RF + RVP ) + RW = RF + ( RVP + RW ) = RF + RP

The viscous pressure resistance is usually a small component of the total resistance. However, if
the hull is excessively curved at the stern and there are large waterline slopes or buttock line
slopes or discontinuities, the flow separates from the hull surface and gives rise to eddies or
vortices. This results in a significant increase in the viscous pressure resistance. The additional
resistance due to separation of flow and the generation of eddies is called separation drag or
eddy resistance.

2.4 Form Resistance

The frictional resistance RF is further divided into the frictional resistance of a two-
dimensional surface of infinite aspect ratio (surface of zero pressure gradient) RF0 and the form
resistance RForm, which is the additional frictional resistance due to the three-dimensional shape
or form of the hull. A two-dimensional surface of infinite aspect ratio is a plane surface of finite
length, a thickness tending to zero and a breadth tending to infinity. This division of frictional
resistance into two-dimensional frictional resistance and form resistance was necessitated by the
possibility of being able to calculate RF0 theoretically.

2.5 Resistance Components and Acceleration

Another way of looking at the components of resistance is by noting that force is equal to
mass x acceleration, and associating the various components of resistance with the components
of acceleration imparted to water by the motion of the ship :

- Two-dimensional frictional resistance is due to the acceleration of water in the direction

of motion.
- Form resistance is due to the acceleration of water normal to the direction of motion.
- Wave resistance is due to the acceleration of water in the vertical direction.
- Eddy resistance (by some stretch of imagination) is due to the angular acceleration of
water.

2.6 Other Resistance Components

The waves generated by the ship sometimes break, and this gives rise to another
component of resistance called wave breaking resistance.
 In a ship with a transom stern, a part of the wetted surface is perpendicular to the
direction of motion or nearly so. This gives rise to a resistance component contributed by the
transom stern, and is called transom resistance.

In certain circumstances, the motion of a body in a fluid produces a force normal to the
direction of motion. This is called lift. When lift is generated, there is an associated resistance
or drag known as induced drag. Some types of high speed marine craft depend on the
generation of lift for supporting their weight in motion, and in these craft induced drag is a
component of resistance. In some marine craft, the motion of the craft generates spray and this
may give rise to spray resistance, particularly if the spray strikes the hull. A ship may
continuously take in large quantities of air or water from outside for some internal purpose. This
air or water, assumed to be at zero velocity outside the ship, is forced to acquire the velocity of
the ship when taken into the ship. The rate of change of momentum of this fluid gives rise to
momentum drag.

2.7 Measurement of Resistance Components

In carrying out experiments to study ship resistance, it is usual to measure only the total
resistance of the ship or model. However, techniques have been devised to determine
experimentally some individual resistance components for ship models. Frictional resistance
can be determined by measuring the tangential stress at several points on the surface of the ship
model and integrating the resulting stress distribution. The pressure resistance can be similarly
determined by measuring the pressures on the hull surface. The wave resistance can be
determined by calculating the rate at which the energy of the wave system generated by the ship
model is increasing, since the work done by the wave resistance is theoretically equal to the
energy of the waves generated by the ship. The energy of the waves is determined by the
measurement of wave heights in the wave pattern behind the model. The resistance determined
from the wave pattern in called wave pattern resistance, and this is slightly different from the
wave resistance because of the effect of viscosity on the waves, wave breaking and other causes.
The effect of viscosity is to cause the body moving in a viscous fluid to impart a momentum to
the fluid in the direction of motion. The rate of change of this momentum is theoretically equal
to the viscous resistance. This change of momentum is determined by measuring the velocities
at several points in the wake (the disturbed fluid behind the ship model); the resistance
calculated in this way is called wake resistance.

2.8 The Froude Law

A detailed study of the different components of ship resistance is necessary to understand

the complex phenomena involved and to design the hull form of a ship to minimize the
resistance of the ship. However for many practical purposes, it is sufficient to divide the total
bare hull resistance into two components : (i) the frictional resistance, and (ii) the remaining
components lumped together as residuary resistance, which is mainly wave resistance. This
division of the total resistance RT into frictional resistance RF and residuary resistance RR was
first proposed by W. Froude, who also stated what he called the Law of Comparison :

The residuary resistances of geometrically similar ships are proportional to their

displacements if their speeds are proportional to the square roots of their lengths.
 RR V
i.e. = constant if = constant for geometrically similar ships
D L

where D and L are the displacement and length of the ship respectively. This is now called the
Froude law. Speeds of geometrically similar ships proportional to the square roots of their
lengths are called corresponding speeds. A more modern approach is to call the two components
viscous resistance and wave resistance.

The relationship between the main components of ship resistance is indicated Fig. 1.1.

Question :

What will be the components of the hydrodynamic resistance of a ship without

appendages in the following cases?

(a) The ship is moving at the surface of a viscous fluid.

(b) The ship is moving at the surface of an inviscid fluid.

(c) The ship is moving deeply submerged in a viscous fluid.

(d) The ship is moving deeply submerged in an inviscid fluid (DAlembert paradox).
Fig. 1.1 Components of Resistance
 3. LAWS OF SIMILARITY

3.1 Need for Laws of Similarity

Resistance experiments have occasionally been carried out with full size ships, beginning
perhaps with the HMS Greyhound in 1874. Other notable full size resistance experiments
involved the Imperial Japanese Navy Ship Yudachi in 1933 and the former Clyde paddle steamer
Lucy Ashton in the 1950s. However, it is difficult to carry out experiments with ships because
of the costs involved and because it is difficult to control the conditions of the experiment.
Carrying out experiments with small scale ship models is much more convenient, but it is
necessary to know how the quantities measured in a model experiment are related to the
corresponding quantities in the ship, i.e. to know the laws of similarity.

3.2 Conditions of Similarity

Three conditions of similarity must be satisfied in carrying out a resistance experiment

with a ship model :

- Geometrical similarity, which requires that the ratio of any two dimensions in the
model must be equal to the ratio of the corresponding dimensions in the ship.

- Kinematic similarity, which requires that the ratio of any two velocity components in
the flow around the model and the corresponding velocity components in the flow
around the ship must be equal, i.e. the flow patterns around the model and the ship
must be geometrically similar.

- Kinetic similarity, which requires that the ratio of any two forces acting on the model
must be equal to the ratio of the corresponding forces on the ship.

Suppose that the forces that must be considered in studying ship resistance are inertia
forces, gravity forces, viscous forces and pressure forces. If M , L and T denote the fundamental
dimensions of mass, length and time, these forces may be expressed in terms of the fundamental
dimensions as follows :

Inertia force = mass acceleration r L3 L T -2 = r L4T -2 (3.1)

Gravity force = mass acceleration of gravity r L3 g = r g L3 (3.2)

Viscous force = coefficient of viscosity velocity gradient area

L
m T (3.3)
L 2 = m L 2 T -1
L

Pressure force = pressure area p L 2 = pL 2 (3.4)

In this, r and m are the density and coefficient of dynamic viscosity of the liquid, g the
acceleration of gravity and p the pressure. The various force ratios are then :
 Inertia force r L 4 T -2 L 2 T -2 V 2
= = (3.5)
Gravity force r g L3 gL gL

=
-1
Inertia force r L 4 T -2 r LT L V L V L
= =
( )
Viscous force m L 2 T -1 m m n (3.6)
r

Pr essure force pL 2 p p
4 -2 = = (3.7)
( )
2
Inertia force rL T r L T -1 r V2

Here L, V and p are a characteristic length, a characteristic velocity and a characteristic pressure
associated with the ship model or the full size ship, and n = m r is the kinematic viscosity of
the liquid. For the model experiment to replicate exactly the conditions of the ship, these force
ratios for the model must have exactly the same values as for the ship.

3.3 Dimensional Analysis

The same result may be obtained by dimensional analysis, which is a technique to obtain
a partial solution to a physical problem too difficult to solve completely. The technique requires
only knowledge of the physical quantities that enter the problem and provides only the form of
the solution. Dimensional analysis uses the concept that every equation that represents a
physical relationship must be dimensionally homogeneous. Dimensional analysis consists in
listing all the variables that may be considered to be involved, writing down their dimensions in
terms of the fundamental dimensions (mass, length and time in problems not involving heat and
electricity), and finding a dimensionally homogeneous relationship between the variables.

The total resistance RT of a ship or model of a given geometry may be regarded as being
a function of the size of the ship expressed in terms of its length L and speed V, the density r
and the viscosity m of the liquid in which the ship is moving, the acceleration of gravity g, and
the pressure p defined in some specific manner :

RT = f ( L, V , r , m , g , p ) = k La V b r c m d g e p f (3.8)

where k is a constant. This equation may be written in terms of the fundamental dimensions :

b c d e f
M LT -2 = [ L ]
a
LT -1
M L -3
ML-1T -1 LT -2
M L -1 T - 2

i.e. [ M ] [ L ] [ T ] -2 = [ M ] c+d + f [ L ] a+b-3c -d +3e- f [ T ] -b -d -2e-2 f

so that

c + d + f =1
 a + b - 3c - d + e - f = 1

-b - d - 2e - 2 f = -2 .

Solving these three equations to express a, b and c in terms of d, e and f, one gets :

a = 2-d +e b = 2 - d - 2e - 2 f c = 1- d - f

so that

RT = kL2-d +e V 2- d - 2e- 2 f r 1-d - f m d g e p f

or

e d f
m gL p
RT = r L V k
2 2
2 2
r VL
V r V

RT m gL p
i.e. = f , 2 , .
2 (3.9)
r VL V r V
2 2
rL V

This is normally written as follows :

RT V L V p VL V p
= f , , = f , , (3.10)
1
r SV 2 m r gL 1 r V 2 n g L 1
r V 2
2 2 2

or

CT = f ( Rn , Fn , En ) (3.11)

where :

RT
CT = is the total resistance coefficient
1
2
r SV 2

S is the wetted surface, proportional to L2

VL
Rn = is the Reynolds number, named after Osborne Reynolds known for his
n
experiments on viscous fluids among other things,

n = m r is the kinematic viscosity,

 V
Fn = is the Froude number, and
gL

p
En = 1 is the Euler number.
2
rV 2

3.4 Application of the Laws of Similarity

There are some important advantages of using a relationship such as Eqn. (3.11) rather
than one such as Eqn. (3.8) :

- Eqn. (3.11) contains dimensionless quantities the values of which are the same
in any consistent system of units.

- The number of independent variables in Eqn. (3.11) has been reduced to three from
the six in Eqn. (3.8), so that it is necessary to vary only three variables independently
in an experiment to derive the nature of the functional relationship in Eqn. (3.11).

- It is difficult if not impossible to vary some of the independent variables in Eqn. (3.8)
in an experiment, whereas the independent variables in Eqn. (3.11) can be varied
quite easily.

What Eqn. (3.11) implies is that if the Reynolds numbers, the Froude numbers and the
Euler numbers of the model and the ship are made equal, their total resistance coefficients would
also be equal :

CTM = CTS if RnM = RnS , FnM = FnS , EnM = EnS (3.12)

where the subscripts M and S refer to the model and the full size ship respectively. For the
Reynolds numbers of the model and the ship to be equal :

VM LM VS LS
= (3.13)
nM nS

whereas for the Froude numbers of the model and the ship to be equal :

VM VS
= (3.14)
g LM g LS

Ignoring the small difference between the kinematic viscosity of the fresh water in which a
model is usually tested and the kinematic viscosity of the sea water in which most ships usually
move, the only way in which Eqns. (3.13) and (3.14) can be simultaneously satisfied is if the
model and the ship have the same length and the same speed. If the model is to be smaller than
the ship, either the Reynolds numbers of the model and the ship can be made equal or the Froude
numbers can be made equal, not both.

Consider a ship of length 100 m with a speed of 10 m per sec, and a model of length 4 m.
If the Reynolds number of the model is to be equal to the Reynolds number of the ship, the
speed of the model should be :

VS LS n M 10 100 n M
VM = = 250 m/s (3.15)
n S LM 4 nS

At such a high speed, even a 4 m model would have a very high resistance, and an experimental
facility capable of such high speeds and forces would not be practicable. On the other hand, if
the Froude numbers of the model and the ship are to be made equal, the model speed should be :

VS 4
VM = g LM = 10 = 2 m/s (3.16)
g LS 100

which is easy to achieve. Since both the Reynolds numbers and the Froude numbers of the
model and the ship cannot be made equal, and it is almost impossible to make the Reynolds
numbers equal, only the Froude number of the model is made equal to the Froude number of the
ship in carrying out resistance experiments with ship models.

Dynamic similarity also requires the Euler numbers of the model and the ship to be
equal. If the pressure p is taken as the hydrostatic pressure, which is normally permissible,
geometrical similarity and Froude similarity automatically ensure the equality of Euler
numbers :

LM
r S g hS
pM r M g hM LS r gh p (3.17)
EnM = = = 1 = 1 S 2 S = 1 S 2 = EnS
1
2
r M VM2 1
2
r M FnM g LM 2 r S FnS g LM 2 rS FnS g LS 2 r S VS
2 2

where hM and hS are the depths of immersion of corresponding points in the model and the ship
respectively, hM hS = LM LS by geometrical similarity, and FnM = FnS .

One may therefore write :

CT = f ( Rn , Fn ) (3.18)

which, following Froude, can be written as :

CT = CV ( Rn ) + CW ( Fn ) (3.19)

where :

1
CV = RV 2
r SV 2 is the viscous resistance coefficient, assumed to be a function of
Reynolds number only for a given geometry, and
 CW = RW 1
2
r SV 2 is the wave resistance coefficient, assumed to be a function of
Froude number only for a given geometry.

Therefore, if geometrically similar ships (geosims) move at speeds such that their
Froude numbers are equal, their wave resistance coefficients will also be equal. Noting that in
geometrically similar ships, the wetted surface S is proportional to the square of the length L and
the displacement volume is proportional to the cube of the length,

V
Fn = constant implies = constant,
L
and
RW
CW = constant implies = constant since, with k1, k2, k3, k4 and k5 as constants,
D
RW RW R R R
1 2
=1 2
= 1 W 3 = 1 W = 1 W = constant.
2
r SV 2
r k1L k2 L 2 r k3 L 2
r k 4 2 k5 D

Thus, another expression of the Froude law is that for geometrically similar ships, the wave
resistance coefficient is constant if the Froude number is constant.

3.5 Use of the Froude Law

The Froude law may be used for the determination of the resistance of a ship from the
measured resistance of its geometrically similar model provided that a method can be found to
determine the viscous resistances of the model and the ship :

- The model total resistance RTM is measured at a speed VM.

- The model viscous resistance RVM at the speed VM is calculated by some independent
means.

- The model wave resistance at the speed VM is obtained : RWM = RTM - RVM .

- The ship wave resistance at the corresponding speed is obtained using the Froude law :
L D
VS = VM S RWS = RWM S .
LM DM

- The ship viscous resistance RVS at the speed VS is calculated.

- The total resistance of the ship at the speed VS is obtained : RTS = RVS + RWS .

This procedure may also be expressed in terms of the resistance coefficients :

CTS = CTM - CVM + CVS FnS = FnM (3.20)

The procedure of calculating the resistance of the ship from the resistance of the model requires
a method for calculating viscous resistance. Methods of calculating the viscous resistance are
considered in the next chapter.
 4. VISCOUS RESISTANCE

4.1 Froude Plank Experiments

To determine the resistance of a ship from the resistance of its model, it is necessary to
divide the total resistance into frictional resistance and residuary resistance (or viscous
resistance and wave resistance), and to have a method of determining the frictional resistance or
viscous resistance. This is what was proposed by William Froude in 1868 when he stated his
law of comparison.

Froude then went on to develop a method for determining the frictional resistance of a
ship or model. For this purpose, he carried out resistance tests in a tank with a series of wooden
planks of lengths varying from 2 feet to 50 feet at speeds varying from 1.5 ft per sec to 13.3 ft
per sec. The planks had surfaces covered with varnish, paraffin, calico, and fine, medium and
coarse sand. Froude found that the resistance of a plank could be expressed by the formula :

RF = f S V n (4.1)

where f was a friction coefficient dependent on the roughness of the surface, S the wetted
surface and V the speed, n being 1.83 for smooth surfaces and 2.00 for rough surfaces. Froude
proposed that the frictional resistance of a model or a ship could be taken to be equal to the
resistance of an equivalent plank, i.e. a plank of the same length and wetted surface as the
model or ship.

The results of W. Froudes smooth plank experiments were later re-analyzed by his son,
R.E. Froude, resulting in the formula :

RF = f S V 1.825 (4.2)

with RF in lbs, S in ft2 and V in knots and the friction coefficient for smooth surfaces in sea water
given by :

0.053
f = 0.00871 + (4.3)
L + 8.8

L being the length of the model or the ship in feet. For fresh water :

0.0516
f = 0.00846 + (4.4)
L + 8.8

There are metric or SI equivalents of these formulas, but the Froude formula for estimating
frictional resistance is mostly of historical interest, and conversion of the expressions in Eqns.
(4.3) and (4.4) is unnecessary.
4.2 Boundary Layer Theory

Based on the concept of dimensional analysis, modern methods for estimating the
frictional resistance use formulas of the type :

CF = f ( Rn ) (4.5)

The Boundary Layer Theory initiated by Prandtl in 1904 led to attempts to develop theoretical
methods for determining the frictional resistance of plane surfaces. When a viscous fluid flows
past a solid boundary, the layer of the fluid next to the boundary sticks to it (no slip condition),
and the velocity of the fluid increases from zero at the boundary to nearly the value it would
have had if there had been no viscosity. This change in velocity takes place in a narrow layer of
the fluid next to the solid boundary. This layer is called the boundary layer. It is assumed that
the effects of viscosity on the flow around a body are confined to the boundary layer, and that
the flow outside the boundary layer is that of an inviscid fluid. This simplifies the problems of
viscous fluid flow to a great extent.

At low Reynolds numbers, the flow in the boundary layer appears to take place in a series of thin
layers or laminas, and the flow is described as laminar. At high Reynolds numbers, the fluid
particles have a mean velocity superposed on which are small random velocity fluctuations in all
directions, and such a flow is called turbulent flow. Fig. 4.1 shows some features of a boundary
layer on a plane surface. As the Reynolds number increases, there is a transition from laminar
flow to turbulent flow. The critical Reynolds number at which this transition occurs depends
upon a number of factors including the roughness of the surface and the presence of disturbances
such as eddies in the flow approaching the solid boundary. The flow around a ship is almost
always turbulent because the ship Reynolds number is high and the wetted surface is
comparatively rough. In a ship model moving at the same Froude number as the ship, the flow
may be laminar because the Reynolds number is much lower and the model surface is smooth.

Fig. 4.1 Boundary Layer on a Plane Surface

 The Boundary Layer Theory can be used to determine the frictional resistance of two-
dimensional plane surfaces. Consider a plate of length L and breadth B moving at a velocity U
in a viscous fluid of density r . Let the thickness of the boundary layer at a distance x from the
leading edge be d and the velocity at a distance y from the surface of the plate be u. The mass
of the fluid flowing per unit time between y and y + dy is :

dm = r B u dy (4.6)

and the change in velocity of this mass of fluid over the distance x is U - u . The change in
momentum per unit time of the fluid that has occurred in the boundary layer is the frictional
resistance of the plate (considering one side of the plate) over the distance x :

d d
u
2
u
RF 0 ( x ) = r B u dy ( U - u ) = r BU

2
- dy (4.7)
0
0
U U

In laminar flow, the velocity u in the boundary layer can be taken to have a parabolic velocity
profile in the boundary layer, with u = 0 at y = 0 , and u = U and du dy = 0 at y = d , so that

2
u y y
= 2 - (4.8)
U d d

Substituting this in Eqn. (4.7), one obtains :

d 2 2
y y
2

y y

RF 0 ( x ) = r BU 2
2 - - 2 - dy

0
d d d d

2
= r BU 2 d (4.9)
15

In laminar flow past a plane surface, the thickness of the boundary layer is found to increase
with distance downstream from the leading edge according to the following relation :

d = 5.0 Rn- 0.5 x (4.10)

The frictional resistance of a plane surface of length L in laminar flow is then given by :

2 1 4
RF 0 = r BU 2 5.0 Rn- 0.5 L = r L BU 2 Rn- 0.5
15 2 3

so that :
CF 0 = 1.333 Rn- 0.5 (4.11)

More accurate calculations lead to the Blasius friction line for laminar flow :
 CF 0 = 1.328 Rn-0.5 (4.12)

In turbulent flow, the velocity u in the boundary layer can be taken to vary from 0 at y = 0 to
U at y = d according to the one-seventh power law :

1
u y
7
(4.13)
=
U d

The boundary layer thickness d has been found to vary with distance x from the leading edge of
the plane surface according to the formula :

- 0.2
U x
d = 0.37 x (4.14)
n

The frictional resistance of the plate is then obtained as :

1 2 1 2
y
2 d 7 y
7 y
1 7 y
7
y
RF 0 = r BU - dy = r BU 2d


- d
0
d d 0
d d d

y d =1
(

= r BU d
2 y d)
87
-
( y d)
97
= r BU 2d
7
87 97 72

y d =0

- 0.2
U L 7
= r BU 2 0.37 L = 12 r LBU 2 0.072 Rn- 0.2 (4.15)
n 72

The two-dimensional frictional resistance coefficient is thus obtained as :

CF 0 = 0.072 R n- 0.2 (4.16)

This friction formula was first obtained by Prandtl and von Karman, the coefficient being
changed from 0.072 to 0.074 for a better fit with experimental data, and is known as the Prandtl-
Karman friction line. The Blasius laminar friction line and the Prandtl-Karman turbulent friction
line are shown in Fig. 4.2, along with lines along which transition from laminar flow to turbulent
flow can possibly occur.
 Fig. 4.2 - Laminar, Transition and Turbulent Friction Lines

Several such turbulent friction lines have been derived using the Boundary Layer Theory
based on somewhat more complex considerations of the velocity profiles in the boundary layer
instead of the simple power law used in deriving the Prandtl-Karman line. Two friction lines
that have been widely used in the study of ship resistance are the Prandtl-Schlichting line
popular in Europe :

0.455
CF 0 = (4.17)
(log10 Rn ) 2.58

and the Schoenherr line (American Towing Tank Conference or ATTC line) used in America :

0.242
= log10 ( Rn CF 0 ) (4.18)
CF 0

Many such friction lines have been proposed. Fig. 4.3 shows some of these friction lines.

When calculating the frictional resistance of a model, these friction lines may be used as
they are. However, when calculating the frictional resistance of the ship, it is necessary to add a
roughness allowance to the value of CF0, a commonly used value being 0.0004.
 Fig. 4.3 Turbulent Friction Lines

4.3 Form Resistance

The frictional resistance of a curved body is different from the frictional resistance of a
plane surface (flat plate) because the velocity distributions are different. The difference between
the frictional resistance of a curved surface and that of a plane surface is called form resistance
since it depends upon the shape or form of the surface. A method to determine the form
resistance of ships was proposed by Hughes.

Hughes carried out a series of resistance experiments with planks and shallow draught
pontoons of varying length-breadth ratios. From his experiments, he concluded that the
frictional resistance coefficient of a two-dimensional plane surface of infinite aspect ratio is
given by :

CF 0 = 0.066 ( log10 Rn - 2.03)

-2
(4.19)

He also concluded that the ratio of the frictional resistance coefficient of a two-dimensional
plane surface of finite aspect ratio to the frictional resistance coefficient of a two-dimensional
plane surface of infinite aspect ratio at the same Reynolds number is a constant that depends
only on the aspect ratio and is independent of the Reynolds number.

Hughes suggested that, by an analogy with the frictional resistance coefficients of plane
surfaces of finite and infinite aspect ratios, at equal Reynolds numbers the ratio of the frictional
resistance coefficient of a three-dimensional body such as a ship to the frictional resistance
coefficient of a plane surface of a two-dimensional surface of infinite aspect ratio is a constant
that depends on the form of the body but is independent of the Reynolds number. This ratio is
called the form factor :

CF ( ship )
r = 1+ k = both at the same Rn . (4.20)
CF 0

Other methods of determining form resistance have been proposed by Lap and by Granville
among others.

The form factor ( 1 + k ) may be determined by empirical formulas or by a method

proposed by Prohaska. Prohaskas method is based on the theory that the wave resistance
coefficient is proportional to the fourth power of the Froude number for a given form, i.e. :

CT = ( 1 + k ) CF 0 + CW = ( 1 + k ) CF 0 + a Fn4 (4.21)

so that :

CT F4
= (1+ k ) + a n (4.22)
CF 0 CF 0

or, more generally,

CT Fnb
= (1+ k ) + a (4.23)
CF 0 CF 0

The form factor can be obtained by fitting the model experiment data to these equations.

4.4 The ITTC Line

In 1957, the International Towing Tank Conference (ITTC) decided that in all future
work, the frictional resistance coefficient for ships and ship models would be calculated by the
formula :

CF = 0.075 ( log10 Rn - 2 )
-2
. (4.24)

This ITTC 1957 Friction Line is not a two-dimensional friction line but a model-ship
correlation line. It is the Hughes friction line with a built-in form factor. The ITTC 1957
friction line is now the standard method for calculating the frictional resistance. However, based
on the results of ship model correlation in the years after 1957, it is now common to use a form
factor with the ITTC friction line. There have also been proposals to adopt some other
formulations for the frictional resistance of ships and ship models, including a method proposed
by Grigson that involves a correction to the ITTC line.
4.5 Viscous Pressure Resistance

The pressure distribution in the flow around a curved body is different from that around a
plane surface that has a zero pressure gradient. However in an inviscid fluid, the pressure
distribution around a curved body is such that there is no resistance. The effect of viscosity in
the fluid causes a gradual decrease in the pressure around the body in the direction of flow
compared to the pressure distribution in inviscid flow, and this results in the component of
resistance that is called viscous pressure resistance. If the body is streamlined, viscous pressure
resistance is small and need not be considered separately but included in form resistance. The
flow of an inviscid fluid and that of a viscous fluid past a streamlined body is shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.4 Flow of a Fluid Past a Curved Surface

If the body has a large curvature or slopes in the afterbody, or there are discontinuities in
its surface, the flow cannot follow the surface and separates from it and eddies are created
between the surface of the body and the separated flow. This gives rise to eddy resistance or
separation drag. The phenomenon of flow separation may be explained with the help of the
Boundary Layer Theory.
 A fluid particle arriving near the forward end of the body has some kinetic energy by
virtue of its velocity. The favourable pressure gradient in the forward part of the body causes an
acceleration in the fluid particle and an increase in its kinetic energy. In the after part of the
body, the fluid particle moves in an adverse pressure gradient and some of its kinetic energy is
used in working against the pressure gradient. In an inviscid fluid, the kinetic energy gained by
the particle in the forward part of the body is used up in the afterbody. In a viscous fluid, the
kinetic energy of the fluid particle close to the surface (i.e. in the boundary layer) is partly used
to overcome the frictional resistance. With a streamlined body, the initial kinetic energy of the
particle and that gained in the favourable pressure gradient in the forebody are sufficient to
overcome both the frictional resistance and the adverse pressure gradient and carry the particle
beyond the after end of the body. With a body that has a large curvature in the afterbody, i.e. a
body that is bluff and not streamlined, the kinetic energy is completely used up before the
fluid particle reaches the after end, the particle comes to rest and its flow is reversed by the
adverse pressure gradient. Fluid particles moving in the reverse direction meet the particles
moving from forward to aft, pushing them away from the surface of the body and an eddy is
created between the surface of the body and the flow moving from forward to aft. At the point
at which boundary layer separation starts the velocity profile has a zero gradient normal to the
surface, ahead of the separation point this gradient is positive, and aft of this point the gradient is
negative. Fig. 4.5 illustrates the phenomenon of boundary layer separation. The separation zone
is a region of low pressure and therefore a cause for high resistance.

Fig. 4.5 Boundary Layer Separation

The extent of boundary layer separation and the magnitude of eddy resistance depend
upon a number of factors apart from the shape of the curved surface. Separation is more likely
to occur in laminar flow and low Reynolds numbers than in turbulent flow and high Reynolds
numbers. A high hydrostatic pressure reduces separation. Boundary layer separation can be
reduced or eliminated by boundary layer suction, but this has not been used in ships.
4.6 Effect of Roughness

Froudes plank experiments included experiments with planks coated with fine, medium
and coarse sand grains. From his experiments, Froude concluded that frictional resistance is
proportional to V n where n is equal to 2 for rough surfaces, whereas it is less than 2 for smooth
surfaces. Nikuradses roughened pipe experiments not only confirmed Froudes result that for
rough surfaces the frictional resistance is proportional to V 2 , but also provided further insight
into the resistance of rough surfaces.

At low Reynolds numbers when the flow is laminar, the effect of roughness is negligible
and the surface behaves like a smooth surface. As the Reynolds number increases, there is a
transition from smooth flow to the flow past a rough surface in which the frictional resistance
coefficient becomes independent of Reynolds number, i.e. the resistance becomes proportional
to V 2 . The Reynolds number at which the transition starts and the value of the frictional
resistance coefficient depend upon the relative roughness of the surface L k s , where L is the
length of the surface and k s its equivalent sand roughness. A formula for the frictional
resistance coefficient of rough surfaces based on Nikuradses work is :

0.427
CF = 2.5
L (4.25)
log10 - 0.407

ks

This behaviour of rough surfaces is explained through the Boundary Layer Theory. In
laminar flow, the roughness of the surface has negligible effect on its resistance and the surface
behaves like a smooth surface. In turbulent flow, there is a laminar sub-layer within the
turbulent boundary layer. So long as the roughness elements are within this laminar sub-layer,
they do not affect the flow. The thickness of the laminar sub-layer decreases with increasing
Reynolds number, and as the roughness elements begin to protrude beyond the laminar sub-layer
they begin to affect the flow. When the Reynolds number becomes large, the thickness of the
laminar sub-layer becomes very small compared to the height of the roughness elements and the
surface behaves like a fully rough surface and the frictional resistance is proportional to V 2 .

This is important for ship model testing. The Reynolds number of a ship model is small
and it is therefore easy to make its surface hydrodynamically smooth. The Reynolds number of
the ship is large and it is very difficult to make its surface behave like a smooth surface. It is
therefore necessary to allow for the roughness of the ship surface when calculating its resistance.

The surface of a ship does not normally behave like a fully rough surface, i.e. its
frictional resistance coefficient is not independent of Reynolds number. The effect of roughness
is usually taken into account by adding a roughness allowance DCF to the frictional resistance
coefficient. A value that is commonly used is DCF = 0.4 10-3 . However, one may also use the
following formula :
1
k 3
(4.26)
103 DCF = 105 s - 0.64
L
A standard value of the equivalent sand roughness of a newly painted steel hull is k s = 150 10-6
m (150 microns), but lower values are now routinely obtained by modern ship building
techniques and paint technology.

During the service of the ship, the hull surface becomes progressively rougher due to
damage to the paint coating, corrosion and erosion of the surface and fouling by marine
organisms that attach themselves to the hull, resulting in increased resistance. This makes it
necessary to dry-dock the ship at intervals to clean and repaint the hull. The rate of fouling
depends upon a number of factors such as the times spent in port and at sea, and in temperate
waters and in tropical waters. Empirical allowances are sometimes used to allow for the
increased resistance due to fouling, e.g. a drop in speed of 1 4 per cent per day in temperate
waters and 12 per cent per day in tropical waters at constant power.

Fouling is minimized by the use of anti-fouling paints that contain an ingredient that
dissolves slowly in the water and is poisonous to marine organisms. Self polishing co-
polymer (SPC) coatings not only prevent fouling but become smoother during the service of
the ship. Unfortunately, these coatings contain a powerful biocide, tri-butyl tin (TBT), and have
now been banned because of the excessive harm that they do to marine ecology. Anti-fouling
paints using copper based biocides continue to be used and newer anti-fouling paints have been
developed that prevent marine organisms from attaching themselves to the hull without
poisoning them.
 5 WAVE RESISTANCE

5.1 Ship Waves

A ship moving on the surface of the sea experiences frictional resistance and eddy
making, separation, and viscous pressure drag in the same way as does the submerged body.
However, the presence of the free surface adds a further component. The movement of the hull
through water creates a pressure distribution similar to that around the submerged body; i.e.,
areas of increased pressure at bow and stern and of decreased pressure over the middle part of
the length.

But there are important differences in the pressure distribution over the hull of a surface
ship because of the surface wave disturbance created by the ships forward motion. There is
greater pressure acting over the bow, as indicated by the usually prominent bow wave build-up,
and the pressure increase at the stern, in and just below the free surface, is always less than
around a submerged body. The resulting added resistance corresponds to the drain of energy into
the wave system, which spreads out astern of the ship and has to be continuously recreated.
Hence, it has been called wave-making resistance. The result of the interference of the wave
systems originating at bow, shoulders (if any) and stern is to produce a series of divergent waves
spreading outwards from the ship at a relatively sharp angle to the centreline and a series of
transverse waves along the hull on each side and behind in the wake.

The presence of the wave systems modifies the skin friction and other resistances, and
there is a very complicated interaction among all the different components.

Submerged bodies just below the surface of water also create wave systems and
therefore, experience wave-making resistance. However, as the depth of submergence increases,
wave-making reduces.

Fig. 5.1(a) - Kelvin Wave Pattern due to travelling Wave

 Fig. 5.1(b) - Kelvin Wave Pattern due to travelling Wave

Fig. 5.2 - Bow and Stern Wave Systems (Schematic) of a Surface Vessel

5.2 Kelvin Wave Pattern

An early idea of the ship wave pattern was given by Lord Kelvin (1987) by considering a
pressure point travelling over the water surface. The Kelvin wave pattern (Figs. 5.1a and 5.1b)
consists of
(a) a transverse wave system, and
(b) a divergent wave system

The meeting point of the transverse and divergent waves is a high point. In Fig. 5.2, a
bow wave system and a stern wave system generated by the forward motion of the ship is
shown. The transverse waves move in the same direction of the ship and with the same speed. If
the wave length is l then,

2p V 2
l=
g
l V 2
or, = 2p = 2p Fn
L gL
where L is the length of ship.

Since the divergent waves move at an angle q to the direction of the ship, the speed of
these waves is ( V cocq ) and hence the wave length l is

2p ( V cocq )
2
l =
g
= l.cos 2 q

5.3 Wave Interference

The wave making resistance increases with ship speed. But since this is the integration of
the longitudinal pressure components developed by the wave system, the increase in wave
resistance is undulatory in nature. When there is a crest in the wave profile in the forepart and a
trough in the aft part, the wave making resistance is high. But when there are crests near both
fore and aft ends, the longitudinal pressure components in the fore and aft tend to cancel and this
resistance increase is reduced. Therefore, based on ship length and Froude number, there are
humps and hollows in the wave resistance curve. If n is the number of wave crests in the ship
length L, the hollow and hump speeds can be shown to occur at Fn given below:

Table 1 - Humps and Hollows in Wave Resistance

n Hollow speed Hump speed
l L Fn l L Fn
1 4/1 0.798 4/3 0.461
2 4/5 0.357 4/7 0.362
3 4/9 0.266 4/11 0.235
4 4/13 0.221 4/15 0.206

Normally, the first bow wave crest occurs around quarter of a wave length aft of the bow.
For high speed vessels (say, planning craft), e.g. F n = 1.5, the wave length is more than 14 times
the ship length and the first wave crest occurs at about 3.5 times the ship length behind the bow.
Therefore, at high speeds, the water surface along the ship length is almost horizontal.
 Up to speeds corresponding Fn 0.27 , the marine craft spans two or more waves,
changes in draught and trim are small and the drag is predominantly frictional. As speed
increases, wave making resistance increases and above F n = 0.36, it increases at a very fast rate.
At Fn = 0.40, when the ship length equals the wavelength, the wave resistance is maximum and
virtually forms a barrier to the speed of displacement vessels. This is primarily because the
increased velocities around the hull form result in negative pressure causing the stern to settle
deeply in water and trim by stern. If the boat is to be driven in the high speed displacement
mode, i.e. 0.40 Fn 0.95 , it is necessary to change the stern shape to reduce separation drag
and also reduce the build-up of negative pressure. This is achieved by designing a wider, flatter
and broader stern than before. Then the wave or residuary resistance barrier is crossed and wave
resistance is no longer an important factor. The frictional resistance, however, remains a
dominant factor. At these speeds, the flat bottom of the aft body may generate some lift force,
which may support some weight. Around this speed some lift is generated and this range is also
known as semi-planing region. At high speeds, length loses its importance as a principal
parameter for resistance, and displacement, which requires to be supported by buoyancy,
becomes important. A volume Froude Number Fn is defined as
V
Fn =
1
g 3


At speeds higher than those corresponding to F n = 0.95, the bottom and aft should be
designed for planning, i.e. the lift generated at the boat bottom should support the weight and the
boat C.G. must rise up so that there is an effective reduction of wetted surface and hence,
frictional resistance. Flow is made to separate at the side as well as at the stern. This is the fully
planning region when, the residuary resistance increases very slowly with speed. This is shown
in Fig. 4. The development of flow from displacement mode to fully planning mode is discussed
in detail in (Savitsky, 1976).

5.4 Bulbous Bows

When two wave systems meet together, a resultant wave system is created.
Mathematically, the resultant wave height can be obtained by linear superposition. Simply
stated, if two wave crests meet, a higher wave is generated and if a wave crest meets the trough
of another wave, a relatively low height wave system is generated. An example of application of
this principle is the bulbous bow of a ship where the forward wave crest due to bow and the
wave trough due to the immersed bulb interact to reduce wave making resistance. In a multihull
ship like a catamaran, the wave system internal to the hulls are superposed. If this superposition
is such that the internal wave system is reduced in height, the total wave resistance becomes less
than twice that of either monohull. This nature of superposition is dependent on the hull
separation. Therefore, in a catamaran vessel, hull separation is very important. A properly
chosen hull separation can reduce total resistance considerably. If the displacement volume of
each hull of a twin hull vessel is pushed below the waterline such that the waterplane becomes
thin, one obtain Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull (SWATH) vessel. Because of the thin
waterplane, the waves generated are small and judicious hull separation distance can reduce
waves further. Hence, resistance becomes predominantly viscous. Care must, however, be taken
to reduce flow separation.

Fig. 4 Speed Power Trends for different Ship Types

5.5 Theoretical Formulation and Approximation

5.5.1 Equation of motions

The equations of motion for an incompressible Newtonian fluid may be written as
q 1
+ ( q.) = F - p + n 2 q (5.5.1)
t r
where,
q = ju + jv + kw
F = iX + jY + kZ
P = pressure

= i + j +
X Y Z
r = density
n = kinematic viscosity

The derivation of the foregoing equations, known as the Navier-Stroke equations for an
incompressible Newtonian fluid with constant viscosity, may be found in many basic references
(Schlichting 1968).

When gravity is the only body force exerted, a body force potential may be defined such
that
W=-gh
W W W
and X= , Y= , Z=
X Y Z
where h is the height above a horizontal datum.

Then Equation (1.1) reduces to

q 1
+ ( q.) q = - ( p + r g h ) + n 2 q (5.5.2)
t r
The Navier-Stroke equations evolved over a period of 18 years starting in 1827 with Navier and
culminating with Stokrs in 1845.

If L is a characteristic length scale over which the velocity varies in magnitude by U,

equations (5.5.1) are expressed in dimensionless form by resort to L and U then it is seen that the
UL
ratio , which is Reynolds number, represent the ratio of the inertial to viscous forces. In a
y
wide class of flows the Reynolds number is very large and the viscous terms in the above
equations are much smaller than the remaining inertial terms over most of the flow field.

5.5.2 Equation of continuity

The conservation of mass for an incompressible fluid requires that the volumetric
dilatation be zero, i.e.
u v w
.q = + + =0 (5.5.3)
x y z
Equation (5.5.3) is invariant, i.e., independent of the choice of coordinates.
The solution of 4 unknowns (u, v, w and p) becomes fully determined when the initial
and boundary conditions are specified. The Kinematic boundary condition for a nonporous wall
is that the normal and tangential components of the velocity relative to the boundary must be
zero. From these, the body and free surface boundary conditions and condition at liquid infinity
can be written.

5.5.3 Rotational and irrotational flows

The rates of rotation of a fluid particle about the z, y, z axes are given by (Schlichting
1968)
1 w v
wx = - (5.5.4)
2 y z
1 u w
wy = - (5.5.5)
2 z x
1 v u
wz = - (5.5.6)
2 x y
1
They are components of the rotation vector w = ( q ) . The flows for which curl
2
q 0 are said to be rotational because each fluid particle undergoes a rotation, in addition to
translations and pure straining motion. In the regions of flow where curl q = 0, a real fluid
exhibits an irrotational or inviscid-fluid like behaviour since the shear stress vanishes. Rotation
is related to two fundamental concepts, namely, circulation and vorticity. Circulation, G , is
defined as the line integral of the velocity vector taken around a closed curve, enclosing a
surface S.
G= ( u dx + v dy + w dz )
q. ds = (5.5.7)
According to Stokes theorem,
G=
q. ds =
curl q. ds = 2
w. n ds (5.5.8)
s s
and therefore, Eq. (1.7) may be written as
G=
2 w x dy dz +
2 w y dz dx +
2 w z dx dy (5.5.9)
in which twice the components of rotation vector appear. They are said to be the components of
the vorticity vector z such aht z x = 2 wx , z y = 2 w y and z z = 2 w z .
In real fluids vorticity may be generated redistributed, diffused, and destroyed since
frictional forces are not conservative. In other words, vorticity is ultimately dissipated by
viscosity to which it owes its generation. For example, the vorticity found in a vortex about four
diameter downstream from a circular cylinder is about 70 per cent of the vorticity produced at
the separation point (Bloor and Gerrard 1966). The remainder is partly diffused and partly
cancelled by the ingestion of fluid bearing oppositely signed vorticity.

5.5.4 Velocity potential

Irrotational motion exists only when all components of rotation vector are zero, i.e.,
 w v u w v u
- = 0, - = 0, - =0 (5.5.10)
y z z x x y
It is then possible to devise a continuous, differentiable scalar function f = f ( x, y , z )
such that its gradients satisfy Eqn. (5.5.10).
In cartesian and cylindrical polar coordinates, the velocity components are thus gives by
f f f
u= ,v= ,w= (5.5.11)
x w z
i.e. q = f (5.5.12)
respectively. Evidently, Eqs. (5.5.11) and (5.5.12) satisfy Eqs. (5.5.10) automatically, i.e.
potential flow is irrotational. It is also true that a potential exists only for an irrotational flow.
The introduction of f into the continuity equation (1.4) results in a second order linear
differential equation, known as the Laplace equation.
2 f 2f 2f
2 .f = + + (5.5.13)
x 2 y 2 z 2

5.5.5 Eulers equation and their integration

The assumption of zero shear enables one to reduce Eqs. (5.5.1) to
u 1 p
=X-
t r x
v 1 p
=Y - (5.5.14)
t r y
w 1 p
=Z -
t r z
These are the celebrated Euler equations and have been obtained by Euler about 100 years
before the evolution of the Navier Stokes equations.
The use of the conditions of irrotationality and the force potential enable one to reduce
the three Euler equations into one equation,
1 2 f p
q + - W + = F ( t)
2 t r
where, q2 = u2 + v2 + w2 and F (t) is an arbitrary function of time only. Frequently, F (t), is
absorbed into f since this does not affect the physical quantities of interest.
f

For steady flows = 0 , then
t
1 2 p
q + + gh = cons tan t
2 r
This is the familiar Bernoulli equation and enables one to determine the pressure distribution
once the potential function and hence the velocity distribution are obtained from the solution of
Laplaces equation.
The boundary conditions can be written as
 f
= ( f ) .n = q.n
n
where, n is the unit normal vector at the boundary point drawn outward of the body and into the

fluid. is the derivative in the direction of n.
n

5.5.6 Singularity in the flow

Suppose there is a free stream flowing in direction x with its potential given by f = U x ,
now we put an object in this flow. Consequently, the flow around the object will be distributed
and tend to be the same free stream flow as one goes away from the object. This object in the
flow can be termed as singularity in the stream. Once set of problems in naval hydrodynamics is
to find this disturbance, i.e., the modified flow when the geometry of the object is known, e.g.
forward motion of a ship in an otherwise calm sea. The reason why this object is called a
singularity is that the governing equation of the flow which is Laplace equation will not be
required to be satisfied in the space occupied by this object. From the mathematical
consideration it is possible to introduce such singularity in the flow in the form of singular
solutions of Laplace equation. These singular solutions violate continuity equation and Laplace
equation can not be satisfied at singular points of the flow described by these solutions. But if
these singular points can be located inside the object or maximum on the surface of the object
where Laplace equation need not be satisfied then the introduction of such singular solution and
superposition of flow created by them, with or withoug a free stream can lead to some
meaningful physically realistic situations. The well known singularities or singular solutions
which are used for this purpose are source, sink, doublet or dipole and vortex.

5.5.7 Source
Consider a point from which fluid is emanating at constant rate uniformly in all
directions. Such a point is called a source. Let a source be situated at the origin. Consider a
sphere of radius, r, with its centre at the origin, the volume rate of flow across this sphere
m = 4p r 2 ur
where, ur is radial velocity
f m 1
ur = =
r 4p r 2
Integrating once gives
m 1 m 1
Q= =
r r 4p 1

(x 2 2
+y + z )
2 2

f is the velocity potential due to am source located at the origin. The streamlines are
radially outward. For a source located at any points, x1, y1, z1.
The velocity potential f will become
 m 1
f=
4p r - r1
1

1 1 (
where, r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
1 1 ) 2

m 1
f=
4p 1


( x - x1 ) 2 + ( y - y1 ) 2 + ( z - z1 ) 2
2

Here m is called the strength of the source.

It may be mentioned here that source potential as given above satisfies Laplace equation
as well as continuity equation everywhere except at the point where the source is located.
Therefore, this is a singular solution. We can obviously use this solution provided the singular
point is not in the flow or fluid domain. (Fig. 5.1).

5.5.8 Sink
A negative source is called a sink, i.e., a point which is absorbing fluid from all the sides
at a uniform rate. The potential for a sink can be written by changing m to m. Hence, for a sink
m
f=
4p r
The streamlines are radially inward. (Fig. 5.1).

Fig. 5.1 Source and Sink Fig. 5.1 Vortex

5.5.9 Pulsating source and sink

If the rate of emanating fluid or absorbing is varying with a frequency, it is called a
pulsating source/sink. Here m will require to be changed to m cos w t or like.

5.5.10 Doublet or dipole

 Consider a sink at the point x = -a, y, z and a source at x = +a, y, z. The strength in both
the cases is say m. Now if we start bringing the source and sink closer such a way that as the
distance between them reduces, strength m increases such that the product 2 m a = m remains
constant. In the limiting case, the combination is called a doublet of strength m . The potential
for a doublet can be obtained as follows:
1 1
m
{ } { }
- -
- ( x - a) + y2 + z2 ( x + a) + y + z
2 2 2 2
f = + 2 + 2
4p

2 1 1
m
{ } { }
- -
= - r + a 2 - 2ax
2 + r 2 + a 2 + 2ax 2
4p

m 1
1 ax a 2 1 2ax a 2

= - 1- - 2 2 + 2 -
1- +
2
4p
r 2 r r 2 r 2
r

For a being small, using standard procedure
m 1 2ax 2m.a x
f = =
4p r r2 4p r3

In the limiting case of Lt a 0 2ma = m

mx mx
f= 3
=- 3
So, 4p r
(
4 p x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2

This can also be written as

m 1
4 p a 3
4p { ( x - a) 2 2
+y +z 2 2
}
( x - a) -m x
-- m -
4p r3 as a 0
4p (x - a ) + y 2 + z 2
2

The streamlines of a doublet are coaxial circles from source to sink.

5.5.11 Semi-infinite half-body generation

If the source potential is differentiated with respect to r obtain the radial velocity and
integrated over the surface of a sphere centered upon the origin, it follows that the rate of flux Q
of fluid emitted from the source is precisely equal to m. This parameter is known as the source
strength. If m is negative, the flux direction is irreversed and the singularity is called a sink.
Mathematically, the distinction between a source and a sink is simply the sign of the strength m,
generally we shall use the term source with distinction.

The streaming flow past a semi-infinite half-body can be developed by superposing the
source potential and a free stream so that
 1
m 2
( )
-
f =U x - x + y2 + z2 2
4p
The resulting flow is axysymmetric about the x-axis, and the streamlines in the x-y place
are as shown in Fig. 5.3. Differentiation of the above with respect to x indicates a stagnation
m 1/2
point at x = ( ) , where q = 0. Here flow is deflected around the source; thereafter the
4p U
outer flow upstream of the stagnation point continues downstream, but with a permanent
deflection from the x-axis due to the fluid emanating from the source. Although the inner flow
does not correspond to the physical domain of the fluid, it is of interest because it reveals how
the source serves to generate the body. Thus, fluid originally emitted from the source tends to
oppose the incoming stream and produces the stagnation point, but ultimately all of the inner
flow is diverted downstream to infinity. Since the rate of flux emitted by the source is m, and
since far downstream this fluid must move with velocity U for the pressure to balance across the
dividing streamline, the cross-sectional area of dividing streamline far downstream is equal to
m/U. The resulting half-body is semi-infinite in extent.

Fig. 5.3 Streaming Flow Past a Semi-infinite Half body Generated by a Point Source at the
Origin. The Body is Axisymmetric about the x-axis and corresponds to the Position of the
Dividing Streamline

5.5.12 Finite closed body generation

To represent the more practical situation where the body is closed and of finite length, we
need to introduce not only a source but also a sink of opposite strength, located so that the fluid
emitted by the source will be absorbed into the sink. The sink clearly must be located down-
stream of the source, and if these two singularities are situated symmetrically about the origin, x
= a, the potential will be
1 1
m - m -
f =Ux - (x + a ) 2 + y 2 + z 2

2
+ ( x - a ) + y 2 + z 2 2
2
4p 4p
Differentiation with respect to x, with y = z = 0, reveals that the stagnation points are located at
l
x , where, l is determined from the equation
2

(l ) m
2
2
- a2= 2al
4 p U
The streamlines associated with the above define a Rankine ovoid (Fig. 5.4). The
maximum radius b can be found from continuity, since the flux passing across the plane x = 0,
inside a circle of radius b will be equal to the flux emitted from the source. Thus, with x = 0,
b
2 a m / 4p R d R = m
2p = U+
0


a2 + R2 3 ( ) 2

1
b2 2
m = p U b2 1 +
a2

The resulting flow, shown in Fig. 5.4, is similar to that actually observed for streamlined
axysymmetric bodies. From Bernoullis equation one can compute the pressure distribution on
the body; it will take a maximum value at the two stagnation points and a minimum at the
central plane x = 0, where the velocity is a maximum.

Fig. 5.4 Streaming Flow Past a Rankine Ovoid, or Source-Sink Combination

 We might proceed to construct more general axysymmetric bodies by distributing
sources and sinks continuously along the body axis. This is a practical method for determining
the flow characteristics of bodies of revolution, especially if they are relatively slender. In stead,
let us focus our attention on the opposite extreme, where the separation between the two
singularities as they are brought together, their strengths m must increase at the same time, for
otherwise they will cancel out in the limit when they coincide. This, it is necessary to make the
product m = 2 m a , a constant, with the result.
1 1
m - -
f = U x + lim a 0 (x - a ) 2 + y 2 + z 2

2
(
-

x - a ) + y 2 + z 2 2
2

8p a
1 1
m - -
= Ux + (x - a ) 2 + y 2 + z 2

(

)
2 - x - a 2 + y 2 + z 2 2
a=0
4 p a
3
mx 2
= Ux +
4p
(
x + y2 + z2 ) 2

The last term is called a dipole or doublet, and the constant m is its moment (Section 5.5.10). If
we examine the resulting flow, from the combination of this dipole with the uniform stream, in a

( )
12
spherical coordinate system, where, x = r cos q and y 2 + z 2 = r sin q , above equation takes
the form
m cos q
f = U r cos q +
4p r2
1

Since the derivative with respect to the radius r vanishes on r = m 3

, the above equation
2 p U
give the flow of a uniform stream of velocity U, past a sphere of this radius.

5.5.13(a) Thin ship theory

One type of body geometry for which the source potential known is the thin non-lifting
planar surface that can be associated with a symmetrical thin hydrofoil moving at zero angle of
attack, and also with a ship hull of small beam. For these situations, the body surface is to be the
l
first approximation, a flat sheet of small thickness and the source potential itself satisfies the
r
condition of zero normal velocity on the sheet provided sources are located on the sheet and
there are no other boundaries (as the flow from the source will be in the plane of the hydrofoil or
ships central line plans, and the velocity normal to the boundary will be zero).

Thus thin bodies of this type can be represented hydrodynamically by a centre line plane
distribution of simple sources, of strength proportional to the normal velocity on the body
surface, provided only that the flow is symmetrical with respect to thin centre plane. This
approximation forms the basis of Michell theory of wave resistance of thin ships. Two important
topics: the use of a source distribution to represent the thickness effects of thin wing or
hydrofoils and the Michell theory of wave resistance of thin ships. If body represented by
y
y = f ( x, y ) , source strength at any point in C. L. is proportional to .
x

(b) Slender ship theory

Here the bodys breadth and depth both in assumed to be small compared to length and
sources are distributed on a line represented by the body. If sectional area a = f ( x ) , source
a
strength at any point in this line is proportional to .
x

(c) Source distribution on body surface (Hess & Smith)

Source of strength proportional to waterline slope can be distributed over the body
surface so that body boundary condition can be satisfied exactly.

(d) CFD methods

All the above methods suffer from calculation failure at the singularity itself and
particularly at ends of the body. Mathematical solution have focussed an approximation for this
with exact boundary condition satisfaction. The advent of modern high-speed computers have
given rise to many CFD techniques.

The viscous flow calculation is more involved. One way to do this calculation is to
compute the potential flow and velocities which can form the starting point of viscous flow
calculation. Numerous research workers have attempted a complete viscous flow solution using
CFD techniques. But a general solution is still a long way.

Therefore, experimental techniques are still the main source of realising drag prediction
of underwater bodies.
 6. OTHER RESISTANCE COMPONENTS

6.1 Eddy Resistance and Boundary Layer Separation

Besides the frictional and wave making resistance, it was pointed out before that several
other components contribute to the resistance of a ship such as eddy resistance, viscous pressure
drag, separation resistance, and wave breaking resistance.

The turbulent frictional belt around a ship consists of eddies or vortices, so that all forms
of frictional resistance are really due to eddy making. However, the term is usually applied to the
resistance due to eddy formation or disturbed streamline flow caused by abrupt changes of form,
appendages or other projections, and excludes tangential skin friction. When the total model
resistance RTM is measured over a range of speeds and plotted as the coefficient
CTM = RTM 0.5r SV 2 against log Re ( Rn in the figure), the curve will be of the general shape
shown in Figure 6.1.

Fig. 6.1 Elements of Model Resistance

Also shown is a curve of the coefficient of frictional resistance CFOM for a smooth flat plate in
fully turbulent flow. The intercept CRM between the curves of CFOM for the flat plate and CTM
for the total model resistance is the so called residuary resistance coefficient. In a typical case
the CTM curve at the very low values of Re is almost parallel to the CFOM curve but some
distance above it. Since the primary component of the coefficient CWM varies roughly as the
fourth power of the speed, the wave making resistance at very low values of Re must be
vanishingly small, and so the intercept CRM (BC in Figure 6.1) cannot be attributed to this
cause. If a curve is drawn parallel to the curve of CFOM , the intercept FG represents the wave
making resistance coefficient CWM = RWM 0.5 r SV 2 . On this assumption, the intercept FE
(=BC) must be due to some other cause, and this is the form resistance.

There are three main causes of this form resistance. The ordinate of the CFOM curve
applies to a flat surface having the same length and wetted area as the model and so neglects any
effects due to the curvature of the hull. This curvature affects the pressure distribution along the
length, causing the velocity to increase along most of the middle part and to decrease at the ends.
The former effect outweighs the latter. Also, since the path along a streamline from bow to stern
is longer on a shaped body than on a flat plate, the average velocity must be higher. Thus, the
real skin friction of a ship must be greater than that of the equivalent flat plate. Since the
pressure and velocity changes and the extra path lengths are greater the fuller and stumpier the
form, such shapes would be expected to have greater form drag. This has been verified by
experiments on bodies of revolution run deeply submerged. For a given volume of displacement,
increases in the length to diameter ratio L/D beyond a certain point, while it may still reduce the
form drag, will increase the frictional resistance because of the greater surface area and so in
terms of total resistance there will be some optimum value of the L/D ratio. The value depends
on the exact shape and on the amount of appendages necessary to provide directional stability
and control, and varies between 5 and 7. For surface ships the intercept CRM has been found to
vary from 5 to 15 percent of CFOM in naval vessels and up to 40% or more in full cargo ships.
These increases, however, cannot be attributed solely to curvature effects, which leads to the
other causes of form effect.

The existence of the boundary layer has the virtual effect of lengthening the form and
reducing the slopes of the after waterlines. This is a region where the normal pressure on the hull
is higher than the static pressure and the forward components of these excess pressures will exert
a forward thrust overcoming some of the ships resistance. The presence of the boundary layer
reduces these forward components, resulting in an increase in resistance as compared with that
which would be experienced in a non viscous fluid, and is called the viscous pressure drag.

If the curvature near the stern becomes too abrupt, the water may no longer be able to
follow the hull and breaks away, and the space between the hull and the smooth flowing water is
filled with vortices, as illustrated in Figure 6.2. A point at which this happens is called a
separation point, and the resulting resistance is the third element of form drag, called separation
resistance. Separation of this kind can also affect the pressure distribution on the hull, and so
modify the viscous pressure drag. In addition to form and separation resistance, eddy making
resistance is also caused by struts, shafts, bossings and other appendages.

Fig. 6.2 Separation and Vortices

6.2 Wave Breaking Resistance and Vortex Resistance

Especially in the case of bluff hull forms the phenomena of wave breaking and wave
breaking resistance have to be considered as well. For this type of hull the flow ahead of the bow
becomes irregular and complex, usually leading to a breaking wave, mentioned in the previous
section as well. At very low Froude numbers, below approximately 0.10, wave making hardly
occurs and the free surface at the stern rises to a height approximately equal to V 2 2 g , where
V is the speed of the ship and g the acceleration due to gravity, in accordance with Bernoullis
equation. As the ship speed increases however, this rise of the wave at the stern no longer occurs
and instead the bow wave breaks. The resistance associated with wave breaking has been the
subject of extensive investigations. Bow wave breaking is considered to be due to flow
separation at the free surface, and it can generally be avoided by requiring that the tangent to the
curve of sectional areas at the forward perpendicular be not too steep. At a certain ship speed the
free surface becomes unstable and breaks when the radius of curvature of the curved streamlines
results in a value of the centrifugal acceleration V 2 R greater than a critical value. This is the so
called Taylor instability criterion (1950), and when applied to the case of the flow around the
bow of a ship with radius R , results in the approximate expression that R V 2 50 , with R in
meters and V in m/sec, to avoid wave breaking

6.3 Air and Wind Resistance

A ship sailing on a smooth sea and in still air experiences air resistance but this is usually
negligible, and it may become appreciable only in high wind. Although the wind speed and
direction are never constant and considerable fluctuations can be expected in a storm, constant
speed and direction are usually assumed. Even in a steady wind the speed of the wind varies
with height above the sea. For consistency therefore the speed is quoted at a datum height of
10m. Near the sea surface the wind is considerably slower than at and above the datum height.
According to Davenport the variation of speed with height can be sufficiently represented by

1n
Wz z
=
W z g

where z g is the datum height, W is the mean wind speed at the datum height, and n is about
7.5 for the atmosphere (this is like the 7th power law in turbulent boundary layers). The axial
wind force (wind resistance) is given in terms of a coefficient C XA which is expressed as
Axial force at relative wind angley A
C XA(y A ) =
0.5 r A ATAW 2

where ATA is the transverse projected area of the ship. The axial wind force coefficient C XA
is function of the relative wind angle y A and typically it varies between 0.8 as y A varies
from 0 to 180 degrees. The above force is generally insignificant except when the ship is
stopped in a wind or during low speed maneuvering. The wind side force is computed on
the basis of the lateral (side) projected area ALA , and is given by the expression
Side force at relative wind angley A
CYA(y A ) =
0.5r A ALAW 2

The variation of CYA with the relative wind angle is generally more or less sinusoidal, and
the maximum value of about 0.8 occurs near 90 degrees (beam wind). The yaw moment
generated by the wind is

Moment at relative wind angley A

C NA(y A ) =
0.5 r A ALA LOAW 2

where LOA is the length overall and the moment coefficient is

C NA(y A ) = x A(y A )CYA(y A ) ,

where x A is the center of pressure, which typically varies between 0.3 of the ships length.

6.4 Added Resistance due to Waves

Winds are seldom encountered at sea without windgenerated waves, sometimes from
distant storms. Such waves approaching the ship from ahead can cause appreciable added
resistance, in part from the diffraction effect of the moving hull on the encountered waves and
partly from the indirect effect of the heaving and pitching motions caused by the waves. In beam
and quartering seas, there may be heavy rolling and some yawing, both of which will add to the
resistance. Required rudder action, in particular during tight manoeuvres, may also make a
significant addition.

6.5 Appendage resistance

The principal appendages in ships are the bilge keels, rudders, bossings or open shafts and struts.
All these items give rise to additional resistance, which is best determined by model
experiments. For rudders this can also be calculated from a knowledge of their shape, using drag
coefficients for airfoils of similar characteristics and Reynolds numbers appropriate to their
speed and length. The correlation of model measurements to the ship is a difficult question
which is not yet satisfactorily solved. The model appendages themselves are very small, so that
the Reynolds numbers based upon their speed and dimensions are also small, and scale effect is
likely to be important. This is especially so with struts and open shafts. Some tanks have adopted
the practice of measuring the increase in CTM on the model due to appendages, and adding only
half of this to the total bare hull ship resistance coefficient. Other tanks make no such reduction,
adding the full value of the increase in CTM to the ship bare hull resistance, so that the designer
must be aware of the specific towing tank techniques. As a means of making approximate
estimates of appendage resistance for design purposes, Table 2 quotes overall figures derived
from model tests, no reduction being made for scale effects. The appendage resistance is
expressed as percent of bare hull resistance.

Table 2 Appendage Resistance of various Ship Types

6.6 Trim effects

Due to the change in pressure distribution around a ship at different speeds, it will rise or sink
and trim. At low speeds there is a general sinkage and a slight trim by the bow as compared with
the at rest condition, Figure 6.3. As speed increases the movement of the bow is reversed and at
about Fn = 0.30 the bow begins to rise appreciably, the stern sinks still further and the ship takes
on a decided trim by the stern, Figure 6.3. In the average merchant ship form, additional trim by
the stern in the at rest condition usually results in an increase in resistance at low speeds and a
decrease at high speeds. At low speeds the increased draft aft makes the stern virtually fuller,
with a consequent increase in form and separation resistance, whereas at high speeds this is
more than offset by the reduction in wave making due to the finer entrance in the trimmed
condition. In ballast condition it is usually necessary to carry considerable trim by the stern in
order to ensure adequate immersion of the propeller, and this will have similar effects to those
stated in the foregoing higher resistance at low speeds, less at high speeds. For any ship
which is likely to spend an appreciable part of her time at sea in ballast condition,
model experiments are usually made to investigate these effects.

Fig. 6.3 - Changes in Sinkage and Trim with Speed

 7. SHALLOW WATER EFFECTS

7.1 Schlichtings Method

The resistance of a ship is quite sensitive to the effects of shallow water. In the first place
there is an appreciable change in potential flow around the hull. If the ship is considered as
being at rest in a flowing stream of restricted depth, but unrestricted width, the water passing
below it must speed up more than in deep water, with a consequent greater reduction in pressure
and increased sinkage, trim usually by the stern, and resistance. If in addition the water is
restricted laterally, as in a river or canal, these effects are further exaggerated. The sinkage and
trim in very shallow water may set an upper limit to the speed at which ships can operate
without touching bottom. A second effect is the changes in the wave pattern which occur in
passing from deep to shallow water. When the water is very deep, the wave pattern consists of
the Kelvin transverse and diverging waves shown in Figure 5.1a, the pattern being contained
between the straight lines making an angle of 19 deg 28 min on each side of the line of
motion.

The velocity of surface waves in water depth h is given by the expression

Vc2 = ( gLW 2p ) tanh 2p h LW

In deep water h LW increases and tanh 2p h LW approaches a value of unity, and the
wave velocity for deep water is given by
gL
Vc2 = W
2p
where LW is the wave length,

As the depth h decreases, and the ratio h LW becomes small, tanh 2p h LW approaches
the value 2p h LW , and for shallow water the wave velocity is approximately given by the
expression
Vc2 = gh
.
The wave pattern for a moving pressure point goes through a critical change when
V = gh , see Fig. 7.1. For speeds less than V = gh , the system consists of a double set of
waves, transverse and diverging as in deep water, advancing with the pressure point at velocity
V. For values of V less than about V = 0.4 gh , the pattern is enclosed between the straight lines
having an angle = 19 deg 28 min to the centerline, as for deep water. As V increases above this
value, the angle increases and approaches 90 deg as V approaches gh . The pressure point is
now generating a disturbance which is traveling at the same speed as itself, and all the wave
making effect is now concentrated in a single crest through the pressure point and at right angles
to its direction of motion. The pattern agrees with observation on models and ships when
running at the critical velocity in shallow water. The whole of energy is transmitted with wave,
and the wave being called a wave of translation.

When V exceeds gh the angle begins to decrease again, the wave system being

gh
contained between the lines given by sin a = .
V
It now consists only of diverging waves, there being no transverse waves or cusps. The
two straight lines themselves are the front crests of the diverging system, and the inner crests are
concave to the line of advance instead of convex as in deep water.

Fig. 7.1 Effect of Shallow water on Wave Pattern

The effect on resistance due to these changes was investigated by Havelock (1908) for a
pressure disturbance of linear dimensions l , travelling over water of depth h , is shown in Fig.
7.2. It can be seen from the figure that the peaks occur at about V gh , the critical speed for
that particular water depth. At this speed the resistance is much greater than in deep water, but
ultimately at a sufficiently high speed it becomes less than in deep water. This depth effect has
an important bearing on full scale ship trials, and can cause misleading results on the relation
between power and speed.
 Fig. 7.2 Effect of Shallow water on Wave Resistance

Speeds below and above V = gh are referred to as subcritical and supercritical,

respectively. Nearly all displacement ships operate in the subcritical zone, the exceptions being
fast naval ships.

As depth of water decreases, it can be seen from the equation

gLW 2p h
Vc2 = tanh ,
2p LW
the speed of the wave of given length also decreases. Thus to maintain the same wave pattern, a
ship moving in shallow water will travel at a lower speed than in deep water, and humps and
hollows in the resistance curve occur at lower speeds than shallow water. The ship speed loss
d V = V - Vh ,
where V is the speed at deep water, and Vh at water depth h , expressed in percentage terms as
100 d V V , is shown in Fig. 7.3 where Ax is the maximum cross sectional area of the hull.

When the ship is operating in shallow water and in restricted channels, the corresponding
speed loss can be evaluated from Fig. 7.4 where RH denotes the hydraulic radius of the channel
defined as
area of cross sec tion of channel
RH =
wetted perimeter

For a rectangular channel of width b and depth h

bh
RH =
b + 2h
When b becomes very large, RH = h , and this corresponds to the previous case of shallow water
of unrestricted width. When a ship or model is in a rectangular channel, the hydraulic radius is
 bh - Ax
RH = ,
b + 2h + p
where Ax is the maximum cross sectional area of the hull, and p the wetted girth of the hull at
this section.

From model tests, Landweber ( ) was able to deduce a single curve Vh VI in terms of
AX RH for use in restricted, shallow channels

Fig. 7.3 Chart for Calculating Reduction in Speed due to Shallow Water

Fig. 7.4 Curves for Calculating Resistance in Restricted Channels

An analysis of shallow-water effects was made by Schlichting (1934). It covered the increase in
resistance in shallow water at subcritical speeds, not the decrease at supercritical speeds, and
was for shallow water of unlimited lateral extent. The analysis was based on theoretical
considerations and on model experiments, carried out in Hamburg and Vienna Tanks, in deep and
shallow water, using geosim models to detect any laminar flow on the one hand and tank wall
interference on the other. He found that the principal factor controlling was the ratio

Typical frictional and total resistance curves for deep water are shown in Figure 7.5 to a base of
speed. At any particular speed, the wave pattern generated by the ship in deep water will have a
wave length, LW , given by
g LW
V2 =
2p

In water of depth h to the same wave length LW would be generated at some lower intermediate
speed VI , where
g L 2p h
VI = W tanh
2 p LW

1 1
2p h gh VI
The ratio of the two speed is VI
2 2
= tanh = tanh 2 . A curve of is shown to
V L V V
W
V
the base in Figure 7.4.
gh

The reduction in speed on this account is V - VI = C in Fig. 7.5, and Schlichting assumed
that the wavemaking resistance in shallow water at speed VI would be the same as that at speed
Vin deep water. The total resistance at speed VI would then be found at point B by adding the
wave-making resistance RW to the appropriate frictional resistance at this speed, R Fh . The line
AB is in fact parallel to EF. There is a further loss in speed because of the increase in potential or
displacement flow around the hull due to the restriction of area by the proximity of the bottom,
giving as the final speed Vh = VI - VP . Schlichting investigated this reduction in speed by
model tests in deep and shallow water, using geosim models to detect any laminar flow on the
one hand and tank wall interference on the other. He found that the principal controlling factor
AX
for VP is was the ratio where A X is the maximum cross-sectional area of the hull
h
and h is the depth of water.
Fig. 7.5 Determination of shallow water resistance by Schlichting's method
 7. MODEL EXPERIMENTS

7.1 Prediction of Resistance from Model Experiments

It may be difficult to estimate the resistance of small vessels accurately by theoretical
means. Therefore, it is customary to run model experiments and extrapolate the experimental
results to full scale for resistance prediction. As has been discussed above,
RT
= f [ Rn , f n ]
1 2
r SV
2
Therefore, model and ship/submerged body should have the same Rn and Fn for kinematic
similarity. But that is not possible in a water tank where Rn similarity will require very high
model speed/water speed. (In wind tunnels this is possible). Therefore, Froude similarity is
followed in model tests. This procedure is very well described in Lewis, 1988. The accepted
basis of prediction rests on the assumptions made by William Froude:
(1) the total resistance can be divided into two major components, frictional and residuary;
(2) since the residuary resistance RR (predominantly wave resistance) is a function of Froude
number, geometrically similar bodies will have the same specific residuary resistance
coefficient CR at the same Fn, where.
RR
CR =
1
r SV 2
2
On the basis of the above, William Froude stated the law of comparison that states
The residuary resistance of geometrically similar ships is in the ratio of the cube of their linear
dimensions if their speeds are in the ratio of the square roots of their linear dimensions. These
speeds are called the corresponding speeds. The total resistance coefficient CT is written as
RT
CT =
1
r SV 2
2
But RT = RF + RR
Hence CT = CF + CR
= f1 ( Rn ) + f 2 ( Fn )

= (
f1 ( n L n ) + f 2 V gL )
If both Rn and Fn for model and ship were same, then CT for model and ship would have
been same. Then
Vm Lm VS LS
=
nm nS
Vm VS
and =
g Lm g LS
where, suffix m represents model values and suffix s represents ship values. These two
identities, particularly, Reynolds number equality cannot be attained for a smaller model since
the speed of the towing carriage is limited. Froude realised that the frictional and residuary
resistance components do not obey the same law and out of this necessity made ship model
testing a practical tool by proposing what is now called Froude similarity.
Model testing procedure and prediction of full-scale resistance is done in the following
manner:
(1) A model is prepared, which is geometrically similar to the ship such that all linear
dimensions are in the same ratio, say, l
L B
l= S = S
Lm Bm
A high level of dimensional accuracy is required to be maintained on the model. The
model scale must be chosen such that the model is not too small for practical
measurement nor too long so that speed required is outside the capability of towing
carriage. To avoid tank wall and bottom effects or blockage, generally model length <
1
depth of water, h, in the tank, the model midship cross-section is p x towing tank
200
cross-sectional area. Model speed should be such that
Vm
0.7
gh
(2) The model is towed in the tank by the towing carriage at the corresponding speed.
Then,
Fnm = FnS
Vm VS
or, =
g Lm g LS
Vm Lm
or, =
VS LS
VS
or, Vm =
l
During the experiment one must ensure that there is fully turbulent flow over the
complete model. This is done by attaching turbulence stimulators like trip write, stud, etc. on the
forebody. The total resistant RTm is measured and wetted surface Sm is estimated. Then,
RT m
CT m =
1
r m Sm Vm2
2
(3) The three-dimensional frictional resistance coefficient CFm is calculated from any
standard friction formulation described previously for Reynolds number, which is
 Vm Lm
Rnm =
nm
Then residuary resistance coefficient CRm is obtained as
CRm = CTm - CFm
(4) Following the Froude law of similarity
CRs = CRm
The three-dimensional frictional resistance coefficient CFs is calculated using the same
friction law as in (3) above. Then,
CTs = CRs + CFS + DC f
(5) The effective power PE for ship can now be calculated
Ss = Sm l 2
Vs = Vm l
1
RTs = CTs + r s Ss Vs2
2
PE = RTs Vs
The model must be towed in such a manner that there is no force or moment imposed on
the model by the towing carriage and the attitudes of the model and ship at corresponding speeds
are exactly the same. For submerged bodies, the body is held by a strut(s) from the towing
carriage piercing the water. This is an addition to the drag of the submerged body. Therefore, this
drag (of the strut) must be measured separately and subtracted from the total drag. Care must be
taken to see that there is no additional interference effect.

The estimation of ship resistance and effective power from model tests is carried out on
the basis of Froude assumption as shown above.

Three-dimensional Viscous Resistance Formulations

In association with his two-dimensional line, Hughes proposed a new method of
extrapolation from model to ship. The total model resistance coefficient can be written as
CTM = CVM + CWM
where
CTM = total model resistance coefficient
CVM = viscous model resistance coefficient
CWM = wave model resistance coefficient
At low Froude numbers, CWM will become very small, and at a point where wavemaking can be
neglected, the curve of CTM will be approximately parallel to the two-dimensional friction line.
Hughes called this point the run-in point. The value of CTM at this point can be identified with
the total viscous resistance coefficient CVM at the same Rn0 .
The form resistance coefficient, due at least in part to the curvature of the hull, is
defined, by
CTM ( Rn0 )
1+ k =
CF 0 ( Rn0 )
The three-dimensional model viscous resistance for arbitrary Rn can now be written as
CVM = (1 + k )CF 0
where CF 0 is the equivalent flat-plate resistance coefficient. The form factor k accounts for the
three-dimensional form, and is appropriately termed the form factor. The form factor (1 + k ) is
assumed to be invariant with Rn and the line (1 + k )CF 0 is now taken as the extrapolator for the
hull form concerned, and the ship curve of CTS can be drawn above the (1 + k )CF 0 at the
appropriate values of Reynolds number.

In 1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Committee advocated the use of form-factor

approach in determining effective power from model tests. The study carried out by the ITTC
Performance Prediction Committee has shown that the introduction of form factor philosophy
has led to significant improvements in the model-ship correlation. The ITTC has recommended
that for all practical purposes, for conventional ship forms, a form factor determined on an
experimental basis (similar to Prohaskas method), is advisable, i.e.
CTM = ( 1 + k ) CF 0 + CWM
CTM C
= ( 1 + k ) + WM
or CF 0 CF 0
CTM cFn n
= ( 1+ k ) +
CF 0 CF 0
where n is some power of Fn, 4 n 6 and k are coefficients, chosen so as to fit the measured
CTM , Fn data points as well as possible.

In Froude method the whole of the model residuary resistance coefficient CR is tranfered
to the ship unchanged, while in the form factor method only the that part of CR attributed to
viscous effects is reduced in the transfer. Accordingly, the three-dimensional method gives
substantially lower ship predictions and so calls for larger values of correlation allowance C A .

If the vessel has large number of appendages, the vessel should be tested for resistance
with and without appendages. Then,
Appendages drag = appendaged hull drag bare hull drag.
 When planning experiments with models it is often impossible to select model sizes and
test conditions so that the flow on model appendages satisfies scaling requirements. The
prediction of ship performance from models where appendages yield significant contributions to
the measured values of drag is therefore, in error if standard procedures are adopted, such as the
performance prediction method adopted by the 15th ITTC in 1978 in which no separate Reynolds
scaling of the appendages is included. Use of the Froude hypothesis for extrapolating model
resistance in those cases leads to significant inaccuracies, and improved testing techniques and
separate scaling relations have to be devised and adopted. Submerged bodies have
comparatively large appendages and therefore the manufacture and scaling of appendages is of
particular significance for prediction.
 9. PREDICTION OF EFFECTIVE POWER

9.1 Methodical Series and Regression Equation Methods

In designing a new ship, systematic series of data for comparisons among a number of
choices of hull form and proportions are available in the technical literature. Such a well known
standard series is the Taylor series developed by Admiral Taylor in the 1930s in DTRC
(Experimental Model Basin, EMB, at the time). The original parent hull was patterned after a
British cruiser with the scary name Leviathan. The sectional area curves and body lines for the
other models were derived from the parent partly by mathematical means. The lines of the parent
form are shown in Fig. 9.1. The midship section coefficient was 0.925. The prismatic
coefficients of the fore and aft bodies were equal, and the LCB was always amidships. The
quantities varied were CP , B/T, and W/(L/100)3, the midship section coefficient CM remaining
constant. The ranges of the variables covered in the Taylor standard series are (dimensionless or
British units):
CP = 0.48 to 0.86,
B/T = 2.25, 3.00, and 3.75,
3
W/(L/100) = 20 to 250,
D/L 3
= 0.70 to 8.75 103.

The design charts give contours of the residual resistance coefficient CR against V/gL
for various values of d/L3, each chart being for a particular value of CP and B/T, and a typical set
is shown in Fig 9.2. In conjunction with frictional resistance coefficients and an appropriate
allowance coefficient, they can be used to provide design estimates of the total ship resistance.
In using the Taylor series results it should be borne in mind that the models have a deep cruiser
stern suitable for a twin screw propulsion arrangement. Also the LCB location has not being
optimized but is stationed at amidships.

Other systematic ship resistance series include the following:

(a) Series 60: Very popular series developed by the Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers in cooperation with the ATTC. It is based on a single screw merchant parent and
includes data on LCB variations, trim effects, and some propulsive data. It has a narrower
range than Taylor series. Many other results have been developed for this series.

(b) BSRA Series: This has resulted from a long series of tests with single screw merchant type
hulls. It was developed by the British Ship Research Association in the 1960s. A comparison
between Taylor, Series 60, and BSRA is shown in Table 3. Here C = W/(0.01L)3 and Lp is
the length of the parallel midbody as percent of the length between perpendiculars. The
terms in the last row are propulsion related factors and they will be examined in the next
section.
(c) SSPA Series: Developed by the Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental Tank in the 1950s
and includes data for high speed, twin screw cargo liners; fast, single screw cargo ship
models; tankers; and single screw cargo ships.

(d) NPL Series: Developed by the National Physical Laboratory, England, it contains data for
coaster models and high speed displacement crafts.

(e) Formdata Series: Developed in Denmark fairly recently (in the 1970s), it is an attempt to
combine the previous main series, Taylor, 60, SSPA, and NPL.

Fig. 9.1 Lines for the Parent Form of Taylor Standard Series

Fig. 9.2 Typical Taylor Standard series Contours

 Table 3 Range of Applicability of Resistance standard Series

9.2 Resistance Estimation Statistical Method (HOLTROP) 1984

R Total = R F (1 + K 1 ) + R App + RW + RB + RTR + R A

where:

R F = Frictional resistance according to ITTC 1957 formula

K 1 = Form factor of bare hull

RW = Wave making resistance

R B = Additional pressure resistance of bulbous bow near the water surface

RTR = Additional pressure resistance due to transom immersion

R A = Model ship correlation resistance

R App = Appendage resistance

The viscous resistance is calculated from:

1
Rv = r v 2 C F 0 (1 + K 1 ) S .(i)
2
where
C F 0 = Friction coefficient according to the ITTC 1957 frictional
0.075
=
( log10 Rn - 2) 2

1 + K 1 was derived statistically as

 0.3649

1 + K 1 = 0.93 + 0.4871c ( B / L ) 1.0681 . ( T / L ) 0.4611 . ( L / L R ) 3

. (1 - C P )
0.12 - 0.6042
L /

C is a coefficient accounting for the specific shape of the after body and is given by
C = 1+0.011 C Stern

C Stern = -25 for prom with gondola

= -10 for v-shaped sections
= 0 for normal section shape
= +10 for U-shaped section with hones stern

L R is the length of run can be estimated as

LR / L = 1 - C p + 0.06 C p LCB / ( 4 C p -1)

S is the wetted surface area and can be estimated from the following statistically derived
formula:

S = L ( 2T + B ) C M
0.5
( 0.4530 + 0.4425C B - 0.2862 C M - 0.003467 B + 0.3696C wp ) + 2.38 AB r / C B
where

T= Average moulded draught in m

L = Waterline length in m
B = Moulded breadth in m
LCB = LCB fords ( + ) or aft ( - ) of midship as a percentage of L
AB r = Cross sectional area of the bulb in the vertical plane intersecting the stern contour at the
water surface.

All coefficient are based on length on waterline.

The resistance of appendages was also analysed and the results presented in the form of an
effective form factor, including the effect of appendages.

S app
1 + K = 1 + K 1 + [1 + K 2 - (1 + K 1 ) ]
S tot
Where

K 2 = Effective form factor of appendages

S app = Total wetted surface of appendages
S tot = Total wetted surface of bare hull and appendages

The effective factor is used in conjunction with a modified form of equation (i)

Rv = 12 rV 2 C Fo S tot (1 + K )

The effective value of K 2 when more than one appendage is to be accounted for can be
determined as follows
S (1 + k 2 ) i
(1 + k 2 ) effective = i
Si
In which S i and (1 + k 2 ) i are the wetted area and appendage factor for the i th appendage

Table 4 : Effective Form Factor values k2 for different Appendages

Type of appendage value of (1 + k 2 )
Rudder of single screw ship 1.3 to 1.5
Spade type rudder of twin screw ship 2.8
Skeg-rudder of twin screw ships 1.5 to 2.0
Shaft Brackets 3.0
Bossings 2.0
Bilge keels 1.4
Stabilizer fins 2.8
Shafts 2.0
Sonar dome 2.7

For wave-making resistance the following equation of Havelock (1913) was simplified as
follows:
Rw
W
d
(
= c1 c2 c3 e m1Fn + m2 cos l Fn-2 )
In this equation C1 , C 2 , C 3 , l and m are coefficients which depend on the hull form. lL is the
wave making length. The interaction between the transverse waves, accounted for by the cosine
term, results in the typical humps and hollows in the resistance curves.

For low-speed range Fn 0.4 the following coefficients were derived

C1 = 2223105 C 43.7861 T ( B) 1.0796

( 90 - iE ) -1.3757
with:
 4
( )
C = 0.2296 B 0.3333
L
for B 0.11
L
B
C 4 = L for 0.11 B 0.25
L
L
C 4 = 0.5 - 0.0625 B for B 0.25
L
d = -0.9

m1 = 0.01404 L ( ) T
13
- 1.7525
L
- 4.7932 B - C 5
L
( )

with:

C 5 = 8.0798 C p - 13.8673 C p + 6.9844 C p

2 3
for C p 0.8

C 5 = 1.7301 - 0.7067 C p
for C p 0.8

-3.24
m2 = C 6 0.4 e -0.034 Fn

with:
C = - 1.69385 for L
512
3

6
L 3
C6 = - 1.69385 + 1 - 8.0 / 2.36 for512 L 1727
3

C = 0.0 for L
3
1727
6

l = 1.446 C p - 0.03 L ( B) for L 12

B
l = 1.446 C p - 0.36 for L 12
B
where
i E = half angle of entrance of the load waterline in degrees
6.8(Ta - T f ) 3

i E = 125.67 B ( L) - 162.25 C 2
p

+ 234.32 C 3p + 0.1551 LCB +
T

where Ta = moulded draught at A.P
Tf = moulded draught at F.P

The value C2 accounts for the effect of the bulb.

C2 = 1.0 if no bulbs fitted, otherwise
ABT n B
C 2 = e -1.89
BT (n B + i )
where
n B is the effective bulb radius, equivalent to
n B = 0.56 0.5
ABT
i represents the effect of submergence of the bulb as determine by
i = T f - hB - 0.4464 n B
where
Tf = moulded draught at FP
hB = height of the centroid of the area ABT above the base line

C3 = 1 - 0.8 AT / ( BTC M )

C3 accounts for the influence of transom stern on the wave resistance

AT is the immersed area of the transom at zero speed.
For high speed range Fn 0.55 , coefficients C1 and m1 are modified as follows:

C1 = 6919.3 C M-1.3.346 ( / L.3 )

2.0098
( L B - 2) 1.4069

m1 = -7.2035 B ( L) (T B)
0.3269 0.6054

For intermediate speed range ( 0.4 Fn 0.55) the following interpolation is used

RW
=
1 {
(10 Fn - 0.4 ) RWFn0.55 - RWFn04 }
RWFn04 +
W W 1 .5

The formula derived for the model-ship correlation allowance CA is

C A = 0.006 ( LWL + 100 ) -0.16 - 0.00205 for TF / LWL 0.04

C A = 0.006 ( LWL + 100 ) - 0.00205 + 0.003 ( LWL / 7.5) C B4 C 2 ( 0.04 - TF / LWL )

- 0.16 0.5

for TF / LWL 0.04

where C2 is the coefficient adopted to account for the influence of the bulb.

Total resistance
1 R
RT = r n 2 S tot [ C F (1 + k ) + C A ] + W .W
2 W

9.3 Resistance Estimation of Submersibles

 A submarine operating on the surface behaves as does any surface craft. It is subjected to
the same force phenomena when moving through the water. Prior to World War II, the
configuration of submarines was the result of a compromise between surface and subsurface
operation. Their hull form was a concession to the existence of wave-making resistance. They
were long and narrow, having an L/B ratio of about 11.5, with a centre of volume approximately
amidships. The bow configuration was a modified surface ships bow, and there was
considerable flat-deck surface with many unstreamlined appendages. The eddy-making
resistance submerged was considerable, because the craft was essentially a modified surface ship
capable of submerging for short periods. The use of nuclear power has permitted the modern
submarine to become a true subsurface ship. It is no longer dependent on the surface for oxygen
to supply the engines. The present hull shapes are completely clear of appendages, except for the
necessary control surfaces at the stern, the propeller, and the streamlined sail enclosure. The
basic configuration of the bare hull is that of a body of revolution whose L/B ratios range from 8
to 11 for attack submarines and from 11 to 13 for ballistic-missile submarines. The modern
submarine experiences no wave-making resistance whatsoever when submerged more than 3
diameters from the free surface.

In order to make powering estimates for submarines, the resistance components are
usually divided into those for the bare hull (subscript BH) and those of the appendages
(subscript AP). The following symbols are useful in calculating total resistance of a full-scale
submarine by several different methods:
CFBH = frictional-resistance coefficient of the bare hull
CRBH = residual (eddy) resistance coefficient of bare hull, generally
assumed independent of Reynolds number

CVBH = viscous-resistance coefficient of bare hull, which is equal to

the total-resistance coefficient for a deeply submerged bare hull.
Thus,
CVBH = CRBH + CFBH
or, alternatively,
CVBH B B
3
= 1 + 0.5 + 3
CFBH L L
where,
B = maximum beam or diameter of the submarine
CA = model-ship correlation allowance or roughness allowance for
full-scale resistance estimates made without model tests
SBH = wetted surface of bare hull
CS = S BH p BL = ratio of bare-hull wetted surface to that of the
outside of a cylinder with the same length and bearm
CVAP = viscous-resistance coefficient of the various appendages,
 generally of the order of 0.5 times CVBH, depending on the length, shape
and Reynolds number of the appendage
SAP = wetted surface of the various appendages, such as the
fairwater (sail), rudder, and planes, etc., generally totalling 0.1 to 0.2 SBH
These definitions and symbols can be combined in the equation for the effective horsepower of a
fully submerged submarine.

EHP =
1
2
(
)
r V 3 CVBH + C A S BH + CVAP S AP

 Fig. 9.3 Typical component percentages of total Submarine Resistance
10. HULL FORM AND RESISTANCE

In research problems concerned with the separation of resistance into its components,
methods of extrapolation to the ship, modelship correlation allowance and the like, the total
resistance coefficient
 RT
CT =
0.5r SV 2
is usually used, plotted to a base of the logarithm of Reynolds number Rn = VL u Curves of this
kind have been used in earlier sections. In any consistent system of units, both CT and Rn are
dimensionless.

For design purposes, a method is desired which will show the relative merits of different
ship forms. Ships are usually designed to carry a given displacement at a specified speed. CT is
not suitable for such cases, since it is based on wetted surface and not on displacement, and can
lead to misleading presentations. An obvious merit criterion is the resistance per unit
displacement weight, RT/W, which is non-dimensional when RT and W are expressed in the same
units. This ratio is the basis of a number of presentations, which differ principally with regards
to the speed coefficient used as the base.

Since lower resistance implies lower fuel costs, minimization of ship resistance is clearly
a consideration in the design spiral. A new ship is usually required to carry a certain deadweight
at a particular speed, and the designer then estimates the probable displacement and principal
dimensions. The latter are usually subject to restrictions not associated with resistance and
propulsion. Length is expensive in first cost, is limited by docking and navigation restrictions,
while added length increases scantlings, equipment and manning scales. From a resistance point
of view, greater length for a given displacement will reduce the wave making resistance but
increase the frictional resistance, so that longer lengths will be beneficial in ships running at
high speeds and viceversa. Longer lengths are also generally beneficial for behaviour in rough
seas.

An increase in draft, T, is generally beneficial for resistance, and is a cheap dimension in

terms of cost. However, it may be limited by depths of harbors, canals, or rivers.

The beam, B, is one of the governing factors in ensuring adequate stability, and a
minimum value of B/T is generally necessary on this account. An increase in B will increase the
resistance unless it is accompanied by a corresponding finer hull. In cases of low speed ships
however, a small reduction in length and a compensating increase in beam, because of the
resulting decrease in wetted surface, may result in little or no increase in resistance. This results
in a cheaper ship and also meets the need for increased stability in ships with large
superstructures. This idea has been exploited in a number of large tankers.
The minimum wetted surface for a given displacement is also sensitive to the B/T ratio,
the optimum value of which is about 2.25 for a block coefficient of 0.80 and about 3.0 at 0.50.
However, the penalty for normal departures from these values is not very great. The effects of
changes in B/T on wave making resistance can be studied from model experiment results.
Generally, stability considerations and limiting drafts usually preclude values below 2.25 for full
ships and 2.5 or even more for fine, higher speed hull forms.
 While such considerations may be of guidance to naval architects in the choice of
dimensions, they must meet many other demands, and will be influenced to a large extent by
their knowledge of the particulars of existing successful ships. The process of design is
essentially an iterative one, in which the various elements are changed until a proper balance is
attained. In order to do this, parametric surveys have to be made on the effects of changes in
dimensions, hull form, machinery types, and coefficients of form.

An approximate relation between the block coefficient CB and the Froude number Fn can
be expressed by
V
= 0.595 ( 1.08 - CB )
gL
for trial speed, and
V
= 0.595 ( 1.05 - CB )
gL
for service speed. A similar formula for the sustained sea speed in terms of the prismatic
coefficient CP, is
VS
= 0.55 - 0.48 CP
gL
where the trial speed is taken as VT = 1.06 VS

The above relationships are intended as rough guides to the designer and do not take the
place of a careful analysis, model experiments, and comparison of alternative designs. Relations
between speed length ratio V/L (V in knots, L in feet), prismatic coefficient CP, and
displacement length ratio W/(0.01L)3 (W in tons, L in feet) are shown in Fig 10.1.

The underwater volume of the hull is denoted by , so that there is no confusion with
the speed V . The curves of this figure are based upon data from a variety of sources, and result
in two pairs of empirical curves which define two design lanes. These apply to merchant and
combatant vessels of customary form, and not to special types such as fishing vessels and tugs.
The load waterplane coefficient CWP decreases with increasing fullness, its value depending also
to a considerable extent upon the type of transverse sections. For Series 60 it is related to the CP
by the approximate formula
CWP = 0.18 + 0.86CP .
In general, CWP will depend also on stability requirements and seakeeping.
 Fig. 10.1 Design Lanes for Prismatic Coefficient & Displacement Length Ratio

In full ships considerable parallel body can be worked in with advantage, and the
entrance can be short, the run being long and fine to minimize flow separation and form
resistance. As CP decreases, so does parallel body, and the entrance is made longer to reduce the
increase in wave making resistance, the LCB moving aft in consequence. Most of the reduction
in CP is thus accomplished by fining the entrance, the change in the coefficient of the run being
much less.

Seagoing vessels are normally monohull displacement type of craft. For such vessels, lines
plan is developed for optimum hydrodynamic performance satisfying the geometrical constraints
and constraints imposed by ship general arrangement (double bottom width to be a required
minimum at the ford end of ford hold to accommodate containers etc.) and ship production
requirement (straight line for single curvature forms - cylindrical bow instead of normal/bulbous
bow). The optimum hydrodynamic performance normally means:

optimum calm water resistance (until recently this was the main consideration)
good sea keeping characteristics
proper flow onto the propeller.
 There has been some work on theoretical development of optimum hull form from wave
resistance point of view. But there has been no universally accepted theoretical method as yet.
The calm water resistance is sensitive to local hull form characteristics. So lines plan
development has been a specialised job based on experience.

However, till a final tank tested linesplan is available, a realistic hull shape is necessary
to proceed with the design activity. Discussed below are some guidelines which may be used for
preliminary hull form development once the main dimensions and the block co-efficient have
been established. These guidelines have been compiled over a period of time from various
sources.

Midship Area Co-efficient and Midship Section Design

The fullness co-efficient of the midship section area C M is rarely known is advance by
the designer. To help him choose, the following points should be given prime consideration:

favourable resistance
plate curvature in bilge area
stowage space for containers in lower hold area
roll damping

Ships with small midship co-efficient tend to experience larger rolling motion in heavy
seas when compared with those with larger co-efficient. The simplest way of providing roll-
damping is to provide for bilge keel. The length of bilge keel on a full ship is approximately
two-third Lpp. The line of the bilge keel is determined by experimenting with models (point-
streak experiment).

Bow and Forward Section Forms

Bows are classified according to type, e.g.

normal bow (i.e. a bow without a bulb)

bulbous bow
special bow

Stem Profile

The so-called normal bow, developed into its present form, is shown in Fig. 10.2.

The vertical or straight stem was first used in 1840 in U.S.A. This shape was also very
popular until 1930's when it became more raked both above and below water. The 'deadwood'
cut below waterline reduces the resistance. Mair first introduced this form in 1930 in
conjunction with V sections to reduce frictional resistance.

= conventional form today

-------- = Maier bow of 1930
---- . ------. --- = vertical stem in use from mid 19th century to around 1930

Fig. 10.2 Various Bulbless Bow Forms

Stem more or less raked above water has now become conventional. The advantage of a
raked stem above water is:

Water deflecting effect

Increase in reserve buoyancy
Greater protection in collisions. Both ships are likely to incur damage only above water
More attractive aesthetically (particularly when stem line is concave

Forward Section Shape

Forward section shape could be U of V on in between. It is difficult to numerically rate

these sections.

An extreme U section and extreme V section having same sectional area below waterline
(i.e. they satisfy the same sectional area curve), the same depth upto the deck at side), and the
same angle of flare at deck level, are compared below (Fig. 10.3)

Fig. 10.3 Forward U and V Sections with same Underwater Sectional Area
 Advantages of the V Section Form (Disadvantage of U Section Form)

Greater volume of top sides

Greater local breadth of the design waterline: associated with this is a greater
moment of inertia of the waterplane and a higher centre of buoyancy. Both effects
increase the value of KM

Small wetted surface, lower steel weight

Less curved surface, cheaper outer shell construction.

Better seakeeping ability cause by:

Greater reserve buoyancy
Reduced slamming effects (though slam frequency may be higher)

Greater deck area - particularly important for the breadth of the forward hatch on
container ships.

In ballast condition of a given displacement, the wedge form provides a greater

draught and hence a decrease in block co-efficient. At a smaller draught the
decreased block co-efficient leads to lower resistance than in the case with equivalent
U-form. Also less ballast is needed to achieve the desired immersion.

Disadvantages of the V Section Form (Advantages of U Section Form)

V sections in the fore-body have a higher wave-making resistance with lower frictional
resistance. This leads to higher over all resistance than U sections in the range 0.18 < Fn < 0.25
(depending on other influencing effects of form).

The following conclusions were derived, concerning ships without bulbous bow, after an
investigation carried out at Ship Research Institute Gothenburg for U and V forward section
shapes. (See Figure 10.4).

In the range when V section has an optimum effect on resistance, extreme V section
should be used, since all advantages here are in V section form.

In the range when U section has an optimum effect on resistance, the advantages and
disadvantages of this form must be assessed.

At points of transition between the ranges a near U section form is used.

At the middle of the range (Fn 0.27) where U sections are hydrodynamically
most advantageous an extreme U section is suitable.
 Fig. 10.4 U and V Form Fore Bodies and their Resistance Characteristics

Forward Section Flare Above Water

Shipping company requirements often lead to a pronounced forward section flare above
water e.g.:

Where there are containers on deck in the fore part of the ship
Where portal crane tracks are fitted upto the forward hatch
On car and train ferries where there must be minimum entry breadth near the design
waterline within a limited distance from the stem.

Increased forward section flare has the following advantages over reduced flare:

It deflect green seas

It increases the local reserve buoyancy
It reduces pitching amplitude
It increases the height of the righting arm curve

The disadvantages are:

It can produce water spray

More structural material is required
It may lead to large pitching accelerations and impacts

Increasing the section flare above water to raise the righting arm curve can produce good
results both fore and aft. In cargo ships the forecastle sides can be flared to an angle of 40
degrees.

Forward Shape

Another important factor in designing the forward lines is the shape of the design
waterplane. The characteristic property is represented by the half-angle of entrance ie which is
related to the section shape, sectional area curve and ship's breadth.
 Recommendations for ie degrees
Cp 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85
ie degrees 8 9 9-10 10-14 21-23 33 37

These values of ae are valid for L/B = 7. For different values of L/B, ae has to be
7
multiplied by the factor L B . These recommendations are primarily applicable to ships
without bulbous bow. Various resistance calculation methods also give the optimum angles of
entrance.

Bulbous Bow

It is commonly believed that a bulb reduces wave making resistance. So for ships which
have a large percentage of wave making resistance one can profitably design a bulb to reduce
EHP. But the designer has to be careful about bulb design so that the bulb reduces and does not
increase wave making resistance instead. Further, the bulb must also be effective in full load as
well as ballast conditions. One also has to be careful that the bulb is fully or largely immersed in
ballast condition so that it does not cause slamming. The classification societies have minimum
draught requirement for this purpose. In full form ships like tankers and bulk carriers, wave
making resistance is less, only about 5 to 10% of total resistance. Rest of it is viscous resistance.
It is believed that most of this is is composed of wave breaking resistance (caused due to high
wave slope) and also due to shedding of bilge vortices near the forward turn of bilge. It is
possible to smoothen the free surface flow as well as bilge vortex shedding by carefully
designing a bulb. So, a well designed bulbous bow can reduce 10 to 15% resistance for a full
form ship also.

Bulbous bows are defined using the following form characteristic:

shape of section
side view
length of projection beyond perpendicular
height at maximum breadth of bulb at FP
area ratio (transverse sectional area of bulb at FP/midship area)
transition to hull

Bulb forms can be of various types as shown in Figure 10.5.

Today there is a preference for bulbous bow that tapers sharply underneath, as this offers
greater protection against slamming. The lower waterplanes also taper sharply, so that when the
vessel is ballasted the bulb has the same effect as a normal bow lengthened. This has the
advantage of avoiding a build-up of additional resistance and spray formation created by the
partially submerged bulb. These bulbs have V shaped transverse sections.

Cylindrical or ram type bulbs are preferred where a simple building procedure is required
and the potential danger of slamming effects can be avoided. These bulbs have U - shaped
sections.
 Parabolic Bow

Bows with sharp stems have been developed for very full ships with block coefficients
above CB = 0.8 and Froude Number below Fn = 0.18. These bow are used in tankers and
bulkers, and also on less full ships with high B/T ratios. These box forms have elliptical
waterlines with minor axis of the ellipse equal to the ship's breadth.

To improve water flow, the profile may be given a rounded form between keel and stem.
The effect of these bows is to create a relatively large displacement in the vicinity of the
perpendicular and less sharp shoulders positioned further back in comparison with alternative
designs with sharp stems. Parabolic bows can also be fitted with bulbs, for which cylindrical
bulb forms are usually employed.

Comparative experiments using models of bulk carriers have demonstrated the

superiority of parabolic bows with fullness of over 0.8 and low L/B ratio over the speed range
investigated between Fn = 0.11 to 0.18.

Fig. 10.5 Modern Bulb Forms

 Stern Forms

The following criteria govern the choice of stern form:

Low resistance
High propulsive efficiency
uniform flow of water to propeller
good hull efficiency co-efficient

Avoiding vibration

In discussing stern forms distinction should be made between the form characteristics of
underwater part and top side part of the vessel.

The top side stern from for merchant vessels could be of the following types

elliptical or cruiser stern

transom stern

Recommendations for Transom Stern design can be given as follows:

Size of Stern Recommendations

Fn < 0.3 Stern above LWL

Fn 0.3 Small stern - only slightly below LWL
Fn = 0.5 Deeper submerging stern with average wedge submergence 10 to 15% of T
Fn > 0.5 Deep submerging stern with wedge, possessing approximately breadth of the
ship. Submergence 15 to 20% of T

The resistance in slow-speed operation for transom stern is noticeably higher than that of
cruiser stern for the same ship.

The reduction in power for transom stern compared with cruiser stern increases with the
Froude number.

Separation at Stern

Separation at the stern is a function of ship's form and propeller influence. The suction
effect of the single screw propeller causes the flow lines to converge. This suppresses separation.
The effect of propellers on twin screw ships is conducive to separation.

Separation is influenced by the radius of curvature of the outer shell in the direction of
flow, and by the inclination of flow relative to the ship's forward motion.

To limit separation, sharp shoulders at the stern and lines exceeding a critical angle (15 to
20 degrees) of flow relative to the direction of motion should be avoided.
 Waterlines above the Propeller

The stern waterlines should be straight (hollows are to be avoided) in order to keep
waterline angles as small as possible. When adherence to the critical angle is impossible, greatly
exceeding the angle over a short distance is usually preferred to marginally exceeding it over a
longer distance. This restricts the unavoidable separation zone to a small one.

Waterlines Forward of the Propeller

The waterline endings forward of the propeller should be kept as sharp as possible. The
outer shell should run straight, or at most be slightly curved, into the stern. This has the
following advantages:

Favourable effect on propulsion requirements. Reduction of resistance and thrust

deduction fraction.

Favourable effect on quiet propeller operation.

The lines in the area where the flow enters the propeller must be designed such that the
suction remains small. Here, the propeller gains some of the energy lost through separation.

The following integral should be as small as possible for the suction effect.

dS sin a
ax
, where dS is the surface element of the outer shell near the propeller
a is the angle of the surface element to the longitudinal axis
a is the distances of the surface element from propeller
x is about 2

Wake Distribution as a Function of Ship's Form

A non-uniform inflow reduces propulsion efficiency. While diminishing propeller

efficiency, an irregular wake can also cause vibration.

The ship's form, especially in the area immediately forward of the propeller has a
considerable influence on wake distribution. Of particular significance here are the stern sections
and the horizontal clearance between the leading edge of the propeller and the propeller post.

Stern Sections

The underwater stern section shape could be

V - section

U - section

Bulbous stern
 On a single screw ship, each stern section affects resistance and propulsion efficiency in
a different way. The V section has the lower resistance, irrespective of Froude number. The U
section experiences higher and the bulbous stern form the highest resistance. However, V section
has the most non-uniform wake distribution, bulbous stern form the most uniform wake
distribution and, U section in between.

The more uniform the wake, the higher the propulsion efficiency and lesser the vibration
caused by the propeller.

The influence of stern form on propulsive efficiency is greater than its influence on the
resistance. This is why single-screw ships are given U or bulbous sections rather than V form.
The disadvantage of the bulbous stern is the high production cost.

The stern form of twin-screw ships has little effect on propulsive efficiency and
vibration. Hence the V form, with its better resistance characteristics, is preferred on twin-screw
ships.

Bulbous Sterns

Bulbous sterns, installed primarily to minimise propeller induced vibration, are of

particular interest today. The increase in propulsive efficiency resulting from a more uniform
inflow is offset by an increase in resistance. Depending on the position and shape of the bulbous
section, the ship may require more or less power than a ship with U section.

Types of bulbous stern forms

Hogner
Nitzki
Simplified bulbous stern.

Fig. 10.6 shows various stern types as discussed above.

Fig. 10.6 Stern Sections

Propeller Clearances

Definition and objective:

The propeller blades revolving regularly past fixed parts of the ship produce
hydrodynamic impulses which are transmitted into the ship's interior via both external shell and
the propeller shaft. The pressure impulses decrease the further the propeller blade tips are from
the ship's hull and rudder. These gaps are called propeller clearance. The propeller clearance
affects:
the power requirement,
vibration-excitation of propeller and stern,
propeller diameter and optimum propeller speed and
fluctuations in torque

Vibrations may be disturbing to those on board and also cause fatigue in the structure.
The classification societies give the geometrical clearances as defined in Fig. 10.7(a). It must be
understood that the effective clearance between propeller and hull must be greater as mean angle
a of streamlines around the stern increases, the stern is rounded and so, the hydrodynamic shape
of the body is modified. Such longitudinal clearance can be determined as hydrodynamic
clearance as shown in Fig. 10.7(b).

Fig. 10.7(a) and (b) Geometrical and Hydrodynamic Clearance