CE6504-HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

UNIT-I
HIGHWAY PLANNING AND ALIGNMENT

PART- A (2 Marks)

1. Define central road fund?

On the recommendation of Jayakar Committee, a Central Road Fund came into
existence on 1st march 1929, upon the authority of a resolution adopted by the Indian
legislature.
2. Define National Highway Act 1956?
In 1956, National Highway act was passed declaring the National Highways and
empowering the central Govt. to declare any other highway to be NH. This act came into
force with effect from 15th April 1957.
3. Write Short notes on Highway Research Board?
This board was set up by I.R.C in 1973 to give proper direction and guidance to
road research work in India.
4. What are classified roads in Nagpur plan?
1. National Highways (NH)
2. State Highways (SH)
3. District Roads:
(1) Major district Roads
(2) Other district Roads
4. Village roads.
5. Define Express ways?
These roads are of higher, day than National highway. There are such roads on which
only font moving vehicles like car and jeeps are classified.

6. What are the modified classifications of Road system by Third RDP (1981-2001)?
1. Primary System
2. Secondary System
3. Tertiary system
7. Write short notes or Nagpur plan (or) its 20-year Road plan.
The first attempt for proper Scientific planning of roads in India, Was made in chief
Engineers conference held at Nagpur in 1943. Nagpur conference finalized at 20 years

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(1943-1963) road development plan.

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8. What are the fundamental principles of alignment?
1. Length of road should be shortest
2. The Proposed road should form a most economical line.
3. The alignment should provide corny.
9. What are the factors which control the selection of alignment?
1. Volume and type of traffic
2. Obligatory points
3. Canal river (or) railway crossings
4. Geotechnical standard to be adopted
10. Define obligatory point?
Obligatory points are such points which act as a control points in highway
alignment.
11. What are the special considerations for road alignment?
1. Stability
2. Drainage
3. Geometric standard
12. What are the various type of Engineering surveys?
1. Map study
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. Preliminary survey
4. Detailed Survey
13. What are two types of road project?
1. A new highway Project
2. Re-alignment Highway project
14. What are the important modifications made in Macadams method with respect
to the other methods?
Following are the important modifications made in Macadams method.
i) Realizing the importance of subgrade drainage and compaction, the
subgrades were prepared with sufficient cross slope.
ii) Heavy foundation stones were replaced with broken stones and with
adequate drainage arrangements.
iii) The total thickness is comparatively less and the order of 25 cm.
iv) The size of broken stones used for the layer was based on the stability under
animal drawn vehicles.
15. What are the objectives of Central Road Fund?
As per the recommendation of Jayakar Committee, a Central Road Fund was created in
st
1 march 1929. The Consumers of petrol were then charged an extra levy of 2.64 paise
per litre . Twenty percent of the revenue collected through the fund was retained as Central
Reserve and the balance allotted to the various states based on the actual petrol
consumptions.
16. What are the special features of Roman roads?
They were built straight without any gradient.
The soft soil from the top was removed till the hard stratum was reached.
The total thickness of road section was around 750mm to 1200mm.

17. What are the important modifications made in Macadams method of road construction?

The total thickness of foundation was 250mm.

Smaller foundations stones are provided.
A cross slope of 1in 36 was adopted from the subgrade.
18. Write any two differences between Telfords and Macadam method of road construction.

Factor Telfords Method Macadams method

Sub grade slope Horizontal 1 in 36
Foundation Stones of large size varying Broken stones of uniform 50mm
stones from 220mm at centre to size for bottom layer of 100mm
170mm at edge thickness
Base course Two layers of broken stones One layer of broken stones
compacted to depth of 150mm compacted to depth of 100mm

19. What are the main factors for consideration in third twenty year road development
programme?

Growth of Industry and agriculture

Requirements of hills, deserts and coastal areas
Expansion of tourism
Rural and Urban development
Environmental consideration

20. What are the objectives of highway research board?

To collect and analyze results on research
To coordinate and conduct the correlation services in transport research
To evaluate the nature and extend of research required.
To regulate the consultation services
21. State the names of various patterns of the road.
Rectangular or block pattern
Radial or star block pattern
Radial or star circular pattern
Radial or star grid pattern
Hexagonal pattern
22. What are the principles of highway financing?
Benefits from the highway construction
Cost of the highway transportation
 Funds recovered from road users
 UNIT-II

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

PART- A (2 Marks)

1. Define sight distance?

Sight distance in the actual length of road over which a driver sitting at a specified
height in a vehicle can see objects either moving (or) stationary on the road surface.
2. What are classifications of sight distance depending upon the situation?
1. Stopping sight distance
2. Safe overtaking sight distance
3. Sight distance at intersection
3. Mention the functions of medians in urban roads.
o To avoid the head-on collision between vehicles moving in opposite direction
o To channelize the traffic into streams at intersections
o To provide protection for pedestrians
o To separate slow moving traffic
3. Define S.S.D?
Stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required with in which a vehicle
moving at designed speed can be stopped without colliding with a stationary object on the
road surface.
4. Define reaction time:-
It is the time in seconds which a driver can take from the instant the objects visible
to him to the instant the brakes are effectively applied.
5. Define perception period?
Perception period is the time taken by an average driver to realize a danger ahead
before actually trying to apply the brake.
6. Define overtaking sight distance (OSD)
The distance visible to the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake another slow
moving vehicle, without causing any inconvenience (or) possibility of accident to the
traffic in the opposite direction in called overtaking sight distance (or) safe passing sight
distance.
7. Define design speed?
Design speed can be defined as the speed which is permissible for safe and comfortable
driving on a given surface of the highway.
8. What are the two effects of centrifugal force?
Tendency to overturn the vehicle.
 Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally.
9. Define super elevation?
The outer edge of the road in raised above the inner edge called super elevation
(or) cant (or) banking.

10. What is the relation between super elevation, coefficient of friction and
centrifugal force V2
e+f = ---------
127R
e = super elevation
f = Lateral frictional coefficient
R = Radius of curve in metres.
g = 9.81 m/sec2.
V = speed of vehicle in m/sec.
11. Define horizontal curve?
It is a curve in plan to provide change in the direction of the central line by the
road surface.
12. What are the factors attesting the design of curve?
Design speed of the vehicle
Allowable friction
Maximum allowable super elevation.
Permissible centrifugal acceleration.
13. Define vertical curve?
It is a curve in the longitudinal section of a highway to provide an easy change of
the gradient.
14. What are curve used in a highway.
Circular curve
Transition curve
Parabolic curve
15. What are the types of transition curve?
o True spiral (or clothed.
o cubic spiral.
o cubic parabolic.
o Leminiscates.
16. What are characteristics of Transition curve?
It should meet the straight path tangentially
It should meet the circular curve tangentially
17. How many methods to determine the length of transition curve?
(1) By the rate of change of radial acceleration
(2) By empirical formula
19. What are the factors governs the gradient?
(1) Characteristics of the traffic.
(2) Physical factors of the site such drainage, safety.
(3) Bridge, approach Road and railway Line intersection etc.
20. What are different types of gradient?
(1). Minimum gradient (2). Ruling gradient
(3). Limiting gradient (4). Exceptional gradient
21. What are the disadvantages of Exceptional gradient?
(1). More fuel consumption (2). More friction losses
(3) Engine Efficiency reduced (4). Early fatigue to animals.
22. What are the types of vertical curve?
1. Summit curve 2. Valley curve
23. What are the heads involved in Highway Geometric?
1. Cross Section eleventh like camber, Super elevation
2. Sight distance character sight like stopping sight distance, overtaking sight
distance etc.
3. Horizontal and vertical alignments
24. Define camber?
Traverse slope given to the road surface in called camber. It is provided mainly to
drain off rain water from the road surface.
25. Define dual carriageways?
Each portion of the carriageway is reserved for traffic moving in opposite direction.
Such carriage ways are called dual carriageways.
26. Define formation width?
Formation width is also called road way. It is the sum of width of carriage way,
shoulders, and separations it provided
27. Define Right of way:-
Area to the acquired along the road alignment in called right of way.
28. What is mean by Hair pin bend?
A hair pin bend should he located on the hill side having the minimum slope and
maximum stability. It should be safe against land slide and ground water. Hair pin bends
with long arms and further spacing should be provided.
29. What do you understand by non-passing sight distance?
Stopping sight distance is also called non-passing sight distance.

SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle travelling at design
speed, safely without collision in event of any obstruction.

30. Define passing sight distance.

Overtaking sight distance is also called passing sight distance.
Overtaking Sight Distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the
driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow moving vehicle ahead safely
against the traffic in opposite direction.
31. What are the requirements of ideal transition curve?
It should meet the straight path tangentially.
It should meet the circular curve tangentially.
It should have the same radius as that of circular curve at junction of circular
and transition curve.
The rate of increase of curvature and super elevation should be the same.
 32. Define highway capacity.
Highway capacity is defined as the maximum number of vehicles that can pass
over a given section of road during a given time period under prevailing roadway and
traffic condition.
33. Define Road margins.
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally
called road margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.
34. What are Shoulders?
Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for
base and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a
fully loaded truck even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for
giving working space around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m
for the shoulders. A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural highways
in India.

35. Define Parking lanes.

Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should
have a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.

36. What are Service roads?

Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like
freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated
by a separator and access to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These
roads are provided to avoid congestion in the expressways and also the speed of the
traffic in those lanes is not reduced.

37.What are Cycle tracks?

Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high
Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every
additional track.

38. Define Footpath

Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They
are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and
vehicular traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the
traffic. The footpath should be either as smooth as the pavement or more smoother than
that to induce the pedestrian to use the footpath.

39. What is the use of Guard rails?

They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running of the embankment,
especially when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m. Various designs of guard rails are
there. Guard stones painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also give
better visibility of curves at night under headlights of vehicles.

40. What are the types of sight distance?

Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface,
over which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of
stationary or moving objects. Three sight distance situations are considered for design:
 1.Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance

2.Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD

3.Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation

4. Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night driving
under the illumination of head lights

5. Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection.

41.What is meant by extra widening at curves?

Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is required on a

curved section of a road over and above that required on a straight alignment. This
widening is done due to two reasons: the first and most important is the additional width
required for a vehicle taking a horizontal curve and the second is due to the tendency of
the drivers to ply away from the edge of the carriageway as they drive on a curve. The first
is referred as the mechanical widening and the second is called the psychological
widening.
42.What is gradient?

Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided for designing the vertical
curve. Before finalizing the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation cost and
the practical problems in the site also has to be considered. Usually steep gradients are
avoided as far as possible because of the difficulty to climb and increase in the
construction cost. More about gradients are discussed below.

43.What is the effect of gradient?

The effect of long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is considerable. This is
particularly important in roads where the proportion of heavy vehicles is significant. Due
to restrictive sight distance at uphill gradients the speed of traffic is often controlled by
these heavy vehicles. As a result, not only the operating costs of the vehicles are increased,
but also capacity of the roads will have to be reduced. Further, due to high differential
speed between heavy and light vehicles, and between uphill and downhill gradients,
accidents abound in gradients.
44. Define traffic density.
Traffic density is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of
roadway at a given instant and is expressed in vehicles per kilometre.
 UNIT-III
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENTS
PART- A (2 Marks)
1. What types of joints provided in cement concrete pavements?
1. Expansion joint
2. Contraction joint
3. Warping joint.
2. What are the types of pavement?
1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavement
3. What are the components of a flexible pavement?
1. Soil sub grade
2. Sub base course
3. Base course
4. Wearing course
4. What are tests conducted for determining the strength properties of the sub grade?
1. California bearing ratio tests
2. California resistance value test
3. Plate bearing test
4. Triaxial shear test
5. What understand by Repetition of load?
The repeated loading may produce permanent and non uniform deformation of sub
grade.
6. Define pavement.
Highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed
materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to
distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.
The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding
quality, adequate skid resistance, favourable light reflecting characteristics, and
low noise pollution.

7.What is rigidity factor in design for highway pavement?

The ratio of contact pressure to the tyre pressure is called Rigidity Factor.

8.Define ESWL (Equivalent Single Wheel Load).

Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) is the single wheel load having same
contact pressure which produces the same value of maximum stress, deflection, tensile
stress or contact pressure at desired depth.

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 9.What is radius of resisting section?
The maximum bending moment occurs at the loaded area and acts radially in all
directions.
This bending moment can be effectively resisted by a sectional area of the pavement.
The equivalent radius of resisting section is expressed in terms of radius of load
distribution and slab thickness.

10.What is Equivalent Single Axle Load?

Equivalent Single Axle Load is the equivalent repetitions of standard axle during
the design life of the pavement.
The numbers of repetitions of different types of axles are converted into equivalent
repetitions of standard axle by using Equivalent Axle Load Factors (EALF).

11.What are the Requirements of an ideal pavement?

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the

sub- grade soil,

Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed

upon it,

Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of

vehicles,

Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at

high speed,

Produce least noise from moving vehicles,

Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by

reducing visibility, Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil

is well protected, and Long design life with low

maintenance cost.

12.What are the Objectives of mix design? 15

The objective of the mix design is to produce a bituminous mix by proportionating

various components so as to have:
 sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement,

sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher temperature,

sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional compaction by
traffic
sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation,

sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending by traffic, and

sufficient flexibility at low temperature to prevent shrinkage cracks.

13.What are the Constituents of a mix?

Coarse aggregates: Offer compressive and shear strength and shows good
interlocking properties. E.g. Granite

Fine aggregates: Fills the voids in the coarse aggregate and stiffens the binder. E.g. Sand,

Rock dust Filler: Fills the voids, stiffens the binder and offers permeability. E.g. Rock dust,

cement, lime

Binder: Fills the voids, cause particle adhesion and gluing and offers impermeability. E.g.
Bitumen, Asphalt, Tar
14.What are the Desirable properties of bituminous mix?
The desirable properties of a bituminous mix can be summarized as follows:

Stability to meet traffic demand

Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing Voids to accommodate

compaction due to traffic

Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season Sufficient workability for construction

Economical mix

15. Define rigid pavement.

Rigid Pavement is defined as the highway pavements with high flexural strength,
against the action of loads. These are made of cement concrete and pre- stressed concrete
slabs.

UNIT IV

HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND PRACTICE PART-

A (2 Marks)
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1. Define contact pressure?

Load on wheel
 Contact pressure =
Contact area
2. Define Rigidity factor?
Contact pressure
Rigidity factor =
Tyre pressure
3. What are the causes of increase in moisture?
1. Percolation of surface water through Earth in the pavement surface.
2. Entry of water through the edge of the pavement
3. Seepage
4. Capillary rise from high water table
4. What are the properties of aggregates?
1. Strength
2. Hardness
3. Toughness
4. Soundness
5. shape of aggregate
5. What are the properties of bituminous material?
1. Consistency
2. Durability
6. What are test of bitumen?
1. Penetration test
2. Ductility test
3. Softening point test

7. Define emulsion?
Emulsion is a combination of water bitumen and an emulsifying agent.

8. What are the important functions of pavement?

To distribute the traffic load over the sub-grade soil.
To provide good riding surface.
To protect the sub-grade from climatic effects.

9.Write the importance of California Bearing Ratio test.

It is the best suitable method for evaluating the stability of soil subgrade and other
flexible pavement materials.
The test results have been correlated, for highways and airfields.

10.What are the limitations of C.B.R test?

It cannot be used to evaluate the soil 17
properties like cohesion or angle of internal
friction or shearing resistance.
Materials passing through 20mm sieve can only be used for this test.
If the test sample consists of coarse grained particles, then obtained results are not so
suitable for proper designing of pavements.

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12. Define Flakiness Index.
Flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of particles whose least
dimension/thickness is less than 3/5th or 0.6 of their mean dimension. It can be measured by
using thickness gauge.

13.Define Elongation Index.

Elongation index is defined as the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest
dimension or length is 1.8 times their mean dimension. It can be calculated by using length
gauge.

14. Define flaky aggregates.

Angular aggregates and their thickness are small, when compared to their width or
length is called Flaky aggregates.

Eg: Laminate rocks.

15. Define softening point of bitumen.

Softening point of bitumen is defined as the temperature at which it gradually changes
from semi-solid state to liquid state on the application of heat. The test is carried out by using
Ring and Ball Apparatus.

16. Why joints are provided in rigid pavements?

To absorb the expansion and contraction due to change of temperature.
To avoid warping of concrete slab at edges.
To provide continuity for concrete laying.

17. What are the requirements of ideal joints?

Should be easy to maintain
Moves freely without stress development
Should not allow infiltration of water
Should be convenient to road users.
Should be in level with the surface
18. Differentiate between tar and bitumen

Factors Tar Bitumen

Source Obtained from destructive Derived from naturally
distillation of coal or wood occurring petroleum
Solubility Soluble in carbon-disulphide Soluble only in toluene
and carbon tetrachloride
Colour Black Black or brownish black

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 UNIT V
EVALUATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PAVEMENTS
PART- A (2 Marks)

1. What are general causes of pavement failure?

1. Faulty material of composition
2. Faulty construction and improper quality control during construction.
2. Differentiate between prime coat and tack coat in bituminous construction.

Prime Coat Tack Coat

Applied to create bonding between base layer Applied to create bonding between
and bitumen layer bitumen layers.
Application of low viscosity cut backs as Application of low viscosity liquid
primer on existing base layer bitumen to an existing bituminous layer
Sprayed at an uniform rate of 7.3kg to Sprayed at an uniform rate of 5kg to 10kg per
14.6 kg per 10 sq.m sq.m

Rate of spraying depends on porosity of the Rate of spraying depends on the type of the
surface surface

3. What is the purpose of applying prime coat?

1. To plug the capillary voids and to act as a water proofing agent for existing
base.
2. To provide best bonding between existing granular layer and new bitumen
layer.
4. What are typical failures of flexible pavement?
1. Shear failure
2. Longitudinal cracks.
5. What is the basic principle of Benkelman Beam deflection method?
The deflection method is based on the concept that pavement section which have
been conditioned by traffic elastically under a load.
6. What are the factors considered deformation under a given load?
1. Sub grade soil type
2. Soil moisture content and its compaction
3. Thickness of pavement layers
4. Drainage conditions.
8. What is the meaning of frost heave?

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The terms frost heave results in rising up of the pavement portion.

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 9. What are the classifications of maintenance?
Routine maintenance (or) repairs
Periodic maintenance
Special repairs.

10.What are two methods of pavements evaluation?

Structural evaluation of pavement
Evaluation of pavement surface conditions.
11. What are the reasons for the pavement defects?
Increase in traffic
Environmental changes
Design and construction deficiencies
Maintenance deficiencies
12. What are the reasons for development of edge cracks in flexible pavements?
Poor drainage
Inadequate lateral support
In-sufficient pavement width
13.Define plastic deformation
If applied stress is excessive than the stability of sub grade and if the plastic flow
takes place, then it is called plastic deformation.

14. Define Warping

Warping is the bending of the concrete slab due to uneven expansion or contraction of
top and bottom slab surfaces. It is caused by any differences in temperature above and below
the slab or caused by moisture differences.

15. What are the reasons for disintegration of flexible pavement?

Improper mix design
Heavy rainfall or moisture content
Poor construction and poor materials
Poor compaction
Insufficient binder

16.What is the Failure criteria of rigid pavements?

Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only criterion
for rigid pavement design. The allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue
cracking depends on the stress ratio between flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus
of rupture. Of late, pumping is identified as an important failure criterion. Pumping is the
ejection of soil slurry through the joints and
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cracks of cement concrete pavement, caused
during the downward movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types
of distress in rigid pavements include faulting, spalling, and deterioration.
17. What is unevenness index?

Unevenness index is defined as the cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the

pavement surface, recorded per unit length of the road.
18. What is mud pumping?
Mud pumping is the rigid pavement failure
It happens when water is infiltrated through the cracks, joints and edges of the rigid
pavement.
The water will form soil slurry and it gets ejected when heavy load passes through the
cracks or joints.

19. What is spalling in rigid pavement?

Spalling is the breakdown or disintegration of slab edges at joints or at cracks or
directly over the reinforcing steel and generally due to the breakdown of pavement joint
edges from traffic action.

20. What are the causes of scaling?

Over vibration of concrete
Presence of chemical impurities

21. What is mud-jacking?

Mud-jacking is the repairing method of c.c or rigid pavements, in which the raising of
settled cement concrete slab or filling a void beneath the slab is done with cement grout.

22. State the remedial measures in rigid pavement for edge cracks.
Application of sealants
Application of epoxy resin
Proper designing method
23.What are the general problems in earthern roads?
Formation of ruts in longitudinal direction along the wheel path of slow moving
vehicles.
Formation of dust in dry weather.

24. Define pavement roughness index.

Pavement roughness index is defined as the grading of irregularities in the pavement

surface, that adversely affect the riding quality of a vehicle. It is used to prepare the
guidelines for measuring roughness on a standard scale.

25. What is pavement serviceability?

It is defined as the evaluation of pavement in terms of surface unevenness, patching

and cracking etc., It is used to analyze the riding23quality of pavement.
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