Discourse it refers to any piece of extended language,
written or spoken, that has unity, meaning, and purpose.
Forms of Discourse
Narration it is the description of an event that occurs
in chronological order and uses first person pronouns.
Description it is the fiction-writing mode for
transmitting a mental image of the particulars in the
story.
Exposition it is a type of oral or written discourse used
to explain, describe, or give information.
Argumentation it is the form of discourse that aims to
convince others of the truth and falsity of a disputed
matter.
Paragraph Development
1. Definition the topic is developed by defining a term
connected to the topic.
Term which is the word to be defined;
Genus where the term belongs and can be
classified;
Differentia/Differentiation It refers to the part of
definition that contains the characteristic or
trait distinguishing a species from other
species of the same genus.
The two important concepts most often associated with
defining:
Denotation is the primary, explicit, or literal definition
of a word. It is the meaning of a word based on a
dictionary.
Connotation is the secondary meaning of a word. It is
not necessarily included in the dictionary, rather, it is
how people understand a word based on their own
personal or consensual experiences and not based on a
dictionary.
2. Example, Illustration, or Exemplification This is the
method that illustrates the idea being developed. The
statement that gives example helps reinforce the
statement or makes the ideas clear.
*Exemplification is the method of paragraph
development that includes listing, enumerating,
and giving examples to elaborate a topic or a
subject.
3. Persuasion the act of causing people to do or
believe something. It is always coupled with
argumentation.
Reading and Writing
Prepared by: Mr. Jorick L. Arellano, LPT
Three appeals to strengthen its claim:
Logos or appealing to the audiences logic, i.e., when
you argue, you use facts, well- supported and
well-developed claims to support and
argument.
Pathos or appealing to the audiences emotions.
Ethos the appeal to credibility. Having ethos means
that, as a source of information, you are
credible, reputable, and respectable. You build
your reputation through honesty and sound
judgment.
Three types of audience:
Supportive audience means you have spectators
who are already briefed on the
issue at hand
Wavering audience means you have spectators who
are not readily accepting your
ideas. They may listen to you but
that does not necessarily mean
they automatically believe what
you are saying.
Hostile audience this type of audience is the most
difficult to please and to win. You
can even assume that they
represent the opposing stance of
the issue you are about to tackle.
4. Analogy, Comparison and Contrast
Analogy for citing similarities.
Comparison for comparing object or idea to another
by pointing out similarities and
differences.
Contrast for citing differences of either object to
make the idea clear
5. Cause and Effect
Cause is what prompted something to happen.
Effect is what was yielded after something else took
place.
6. Explanation or Discussion this aims at the readers
understanding. This has a variety of functions: giving
directions, explaining a process, comparing or
contrasting two (2) objects or ideas, interpreting a
statement or explaining a theory.
7. Classification this is done by grouping items into
categories, such as characteristics, types, factors, and
other classes or divisions.
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Claim is a sentence that summarizes the most
important thing that the writer wants to say as a result
of his/her thinking, reading, or writing.
Types of Claim
Claims of Fact it states a quantifiable assertion or a
measurable topic. It usually answers a what question.
Claiims of Value It refers to the claim that consists of
arguments about moral, philosophical, or aesthetic
topics and asserts something that can be qualified.
Claims of Policy posit that specific actions should be
chosen as solutions to a particular problem. You can
easily identify a claim of policy because they begin with
should, ought to, or must. Parts of a Book Review
Context of Text Development
Context - is defined as the social, cultural, political,
historical, and other related circumstances that
surround the text and form the terms from which it can
be better understood and evaluated.
Intertextuality - it is the modeling of a texts meaning
by another text. It is defined as the connections
between language, images, characters, themes, or
subjects depending on their similarities in language,
genre, or discourse.
Hypertext - is a non-linear way of showing information.
It connects topics on the screen to related information,
graphics, or videos that are related to the text.
Assertions are declarative sentences that claim
something is true about something else. It is a sentence
that is either true or false.
Four (4) Types of Assertions
Fact It is a type of assertion that can be proven
objectively by direct experience, testimonies of
witnesses, verified observations, or the results of the
research.
Convention is a way in which something is done,
similar to traditions and norms. It depends on historical
precedent, laws, rules, usage, and customs.
Opinion is based on facts but are difficult to
objectively verify because of the uncertainty of
producing satisfactory proof of soundness.
Preference is based on personal choice; they are
subjective and cannot be objectively proven or logically
attacked.
Book Review is a short piece of text describing what
the book is about, the intentions or aims of the author
Reading and Writing
Prepared by: Mr. Jorick L. Arellano, LPT
in writing the book, whether the aims were successfully
achieved or not, how it is written and whether it suits a
certain readership, and how does it compare to other
comparable works in the same field.
Title What does it suggest?
Preface It is the preliminary part of the book that
provides important information on the
authors purpose in writing the book.
Table of Contents tells you how the book is
organized and will aid in determining the
author's main ideas and how they are
developed - chronologically, topically, etc.
1. Preliminary Information
2. Introduction
3. Development
4. Conclusion
Film Review is assessment of the aesthetic,
entertainment, social, and cultural merits and
significance of a current film or video.
Parts of a Film Review
1. Introduction
2. Plots Summary
3. Description
4. Analysis
5. Conclusion/Evaluation
Research It is taken from the word re, which means
again; and search, meaning to investigate (Bargo,
2014). It is derived from the Middle French recerche
or the act of searching closely.
Research Methods
Quantitative Method - explains phenomena by
collecting numerical data analyzed using appropriate
statistical treatment.
Qualitative Method - obtains a more holistic picture of
what goes on in a particular situation or setting. It
originated in the social and behavioral sciences:
sociology, anthropology, and psychology.
Research proposal an academic work that aims to
persuade people that the researchers have the integral
skills and work plan to complete a research.
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Different Sections in the Research Proposal
1. Introduction
a. Research Problem - is a universal statement that
ensures the rudiments of research.
b. Statement of the Problem - it pertains to the
purposefulness of the study.
c. Significance of the Study - It is a critical part of the
research since the researcher aims to influence the
readers into reading the study.
d. Hypothesis - It is a scholarly assumption, designed to
define, analyze, and expound a fact or an instinctual
phenomenon.
Two main types of variable:
Independent variable the variable that is stable and
unaffected by the other variables you are trying to
measure. It is the presumed cause.
Dependent variable the variable that depends on
other factors that are measured. It is the presumed
effect.
e. Definition of terminologies unlocks words or
expressions crucial in understanding the veracity of the
study.
2. Literature review it presents a summary of all the
pieces of literature obtained and reviewed by the
researcher, facilitating the crafting and expansion of the
study.
The two (2) documenting styles that researchers avail
and adopt:
American Psychological Association (APA) format - it is
the format that uses two (2) documenting schemes, the
Reference list and In-text citation.
Chicago Manual style of citation It uses two (2)
documenting schemes: the notes system, usually
administered in researches whose nature is of the arts,
humanities, and history, and in-text parenthetical
system administered to studies that are natural, social,
and physical science in origin.
Good source for literature review:
1. Books
2. Academic journals
3. Newspapers
4. Government publications
5. Conference presentations,
6. World Wide Web
Reading and Writing
Prepared by: Mr. Jorick L. Arellano, LPT
3. Methodology refers to the defining and designing
of strategies in conducting the study, for the purpose if
addressing the research problem.
4. Results and Discussion it contains the presentation
of the results in a non-text format, such as tables,
graphs, or charts.
5. Conclusions and Recommendation this part
summarizes what your research was able to uncover,
what the findings suggest, and offer ways on what
future research can do to improve on if they want to do
something similar to your study.
Resume it is a document that contains a brief account
of a persons education, skills, work experience, and
other qualifications.
Basic Guidelines/Parts of Resume
Contact Information this includes your complete
name, full current address, phone numbers, and email
address.
Objectives one (1) to two (2) sentences long that
describes the type of job you want, the type of
organization you prefer and how you can contribute to
the position/organization.
Education includes college and high school
information only.
Work Experience this includes employer (name of
organization), number of year/s employed, job title, and
results and accomplishments on the job.
Skills this includes the languages you speak and other
special skills e.g., typing, records filing, driving, etc.
Extra-curricular Activities includes the name of the
organization, duration of participation, position, and
results and accomplishments on the job.
References include name/s, positions, organization,
and contact number of person/s to be contacted. Also,
do not forget to inform your references that you have
included them in your list.
Application Letter A document that provides
additional information about a job applicant, it is also
known as cover letter.
Parts of Application Letter
Introduction this part opens the letter and specifies
the position that you are applying for.
Body This part emphasizes your strongest points and
shows how you meet the employers needs. It is also
essential to highlight the benefits that the organization
will get from accepting you.
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Conclusion this part of the letter is where you request Request is written to ask for a particular information,
for an interview. (Dont forget to include your contact permission, favor, or service.
information.) Complaint are written to express a problem,
discontent, or protest about a particular situation.
Three (3) formats that can be followed in writing an (Letter of Complaint/Complaint Letter)
application letter: Apology It is written as an expression of regret and
1. Block intention to make amends for a mistake or infraction
2. Indented committed.
3. Modified block Resignation is written by an employee who wishes to
formally leave his/her job position.
Business Letter is a formal type of written
communication used by professionals in their day- to-
day transactions.

Parts of a Business Letter

Return Address it is the sender's address which
usually included in the letterhead.
Date Line is used to indicate the date the letter was
written.
Inside Address is the recipient's address.
Salutation it uses the same name as the inside
address, including the personal title. If you know the
person, address them by their first name. . In all other
cases, however, use the personal title and last/family
name.
Body it contains the message of the sender.
Complimentary Close begins at the same vertical
point as your date and one line after the last body
paragraph. (examples: Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Yours
truly,)
Signature Line this contains the signature and the full
name of the sender.

Office correspondences normally take place between

employees and employers. These are also written to
communicate with clients and customers in a more
professional manner. It is commonly known as
business letter.

Types of Office Correspondences

Recommendation the content of the letter focuses on
the professional relationship between the applicant and
the sender and the positive points that may convince
the receiver to consider the ongoing application.
Acknowledgment it is also known as the letter of
receipt. It is written to express acceptance or receipt of
a prior correspondence.
Inquiry is written to ask a specific question or elicit an
information from the addressee of the letter.

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Reading and Writing
Prepared by: Mr. Jorick L. Arellano, LPT