LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000BC- 500BC)

RELIGION

In the later Vedic period, important changes took place in religious life.
Rituals and formulae became prominent m the cult of sacrifice. Prajapati, the
creator, became supreme among gods. Some of the minor gods of the
Rigvedic period (e.g., Vishnu and Rudra) became important in the later
Vedic period. Signs of idolatry also appeared. Some of the social orders
came to have their own deities, e.g., Pushan, responsible for well-being of
the cattle, became the god of the shudras. Though prayers still formed part of
worship, they no longer were valued for placating the gods. Sacrifices
however, towards the end of the period began a strong reaction against
priestly domination and sacrificial cults and rituals with the composition of
the Upanishads which valued right belief and knowledge more than anything
else.

LITERATURE OF LATER VEDIC AGE

Though the two epics-the Mahabharata and the Ramayana-were compiled

later, they reflect the state of affairs of the later Vedic period.
The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, is older than the Ramayana and
describes the period from the tenth century BC to the fourth century AD.
Originally, it contained 8800 verses and was called Jaya Samhita. Later, the
number of verses was raised to 24,000 and the book became known as
Bharata. Today, the book is called Mahabharata, having one lakh verses-
also called Satasahsri Samhita.
The Ramayana, attributed to Valmiki, originally had 6,000 verses, but later
the number of verses was raised to 12,000 and finally to 24,000. Its
composition started in the fifth century BC and passed through five stages;
the fifth stage ended in the twelfth century AD. It may be remarked that
while the Ramayana depicts conflicts between the Aryans and non-Aryans,
the Mahabharata is concerned with conflicts between Aryans themselves.
The Dharmashastras deal with religious duties and civil law. The principle
Dharmashastras are attributed to Manu, Vishnu, Yajnavalkya and Narada.
They were probably composed in the early Christian centuries. They
prescribe rigidity in the caste system and, apart from the four traditional
varnas, refer to the 'mixed castes'. They give us a clear idea of the four
ashramas (stages of life) through which every 'twice-born' was expected to
pass. They also clearly indicate the declining position of women. The
Yajnavalkasmriti is more advanced and unconventional in doctrines than the
others; it allows widows to inherit property.

Later Vedic literature also comprises the later three Vedas (Sama, Yajur and
Atharva), the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads-all written
during 1000-600 BC (The word Veda is derived from the word Vid, i.e. to
know; thus, Veda means knowledge or wisdom). Together with the Rigveda,
the whole corpus of Vedic literature is termed as Shruti, 'not written' by man
but revealed to certain seers by God.
However, the Aryan literature also includes the four Upavedas and six
Vedangas, together termed as the Smriti literature, not divine in nature but
written by ordinary mortals.
Vedic literature can be divided into four groups.
(i) Samhitas or collection of hymens, prayers,
sacrificial formulae, etc.
(ii) The Brahmanas are notes in prose and they explain the origin and
meaning of the various hymns of the Samhitas
(iii) The Aranyakas or forest texts, books of instruction to be given in the
forest or writings meant for wood-dwelling hermits, which are found as
appendices to the Brahmanas.
(iv) The Upanishads, 'secret or esoteric doctrines'. Some scholars derive the
name from the root upani-sad which means "to sit down near some one",
doctrines that may be imparted to a son or a trusted pupil 'seated near the
teacher'.

Besides, there are other ancient literary works which relate to the later Vedic
period.
Six Vedangas (limbs of the Vedas):
(i) Siksha (Pronunciation)
(ii) Kalpa (Ritual)
(iii) Vyakarana (Grammar)
(iv) Nirukta (Etymology)
(v) Chhandas (Me)
(vi) Jyotisha (Astronomy).

Six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy:

(i) Kapila's Sankhya
(ii) Patanjali's Yoga
(iii) Gautama's Nyaya
 (iv) Kanada's Vaishesika
(iv) Jaimini's Purva Mimamsa
(v) Vyasa's Uttara Mimamsa.

ECONOMY

By now the Aryans had nearly all the equipments of a civilisation of the
ancient type. Whereas the Rigveda speaks only of gold and copper or
bronze, the later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, silver and iron. The
elephant was tamed, though little used in war. The Aryans now cultivated a
large range of crops including rice, and they understood something of
irrigation and manuring.

Specialised trades and crafts had appeared. In place of the few craftsmen in
the Rigveda, many are now referred to, including jewellers, goldsmiths,
metalworkers, basketmakers, rope-makers, weavers, dyers, carpenters and
potters. Various types of domestic servants are mentioned, and a rudimentary
entertainment industry existed, with professional acrobats, fortune-tellers,
flute-players and dancers, while there are also references to usurers and
merchants.
Still there is no mention of coined money or writing. After a break of many
centuries, Indian merchandise was again finding its way to Mesopotamia.

SOCIETY

The four-fold division of society became clear. The power of the brahmanas
increased so much that they sometimes came into conflict with the rajanyas
for supremacy. But when the two upper orders faced the lower order, they
would make up their differences. However, the vaishyas, along with the
Brahmanas and Rajanyas (or kshatriyas), were entitled to upanayana or
investiture with the sacred thread. The shudras were deprived of this
ceremony. Certain sections of artisans such as rathajaras (chariot-makers)
enjoyed a high status and were allowed upanayana.

In the family, father's power increased, and he could even disinherit his son.
In princely families, the rule of primogeniture was being consolidated.
Women's status deteriorated. The institution of gotra appeared; people began
to practice gotra exogamy. Of the four ashramas or four stages of life, only
three (brahmachari, grihastha and vanaprastha) are mentioned.

POLITY

The king's power increased; he now ruled over kingdoms rather than over
nomadic tribes. Tribal character was not wholly lost, but the kings
established permanent capitals and a rudimentary administrative system.
The old tribal assemblies (of the Rigvedic times) were still extant, but their
power was waning rapidly, and by the end of this period the king's autocracy
was limited only by the power of the Brahmins, tradition and public opinion.
At places, the old tribal organizations adapted themselves to the changed
conditions, and ganas, or tribal republics, like those of the Sakyas and the
Lichchavis, survived for many centuries in outlying districts. However,
political divisions based on kinship were giving place to those based on
geography.

If the popular assemblies had lost power, another element in the state was
raising in influence-the ratnins or 'jewel bearers', the relatives, courtiers and
palace officials of the king. These elements became so important that at the
king's consecration, special sacrifices were performed to ensure their loyalty.
The list of ratnins includes the purohita, senani, chamberlain, royal
charioteer, samgrahitri (the treasurer), bhagadugha (revenue-collector), etc.
Royal pretensions were supported by grand royal sacrifices like Rajasuya,
Vajapeya, Asvamedha, etc.
The judicial machinery had crystallized. Death penalty was still absent. The
king now lived on taxes, not voluntary tributes. A standing army was still
absent, and according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat
along with his people from the same plate.