Metallurgy

ICSE

Class X
I. Introduction to metals and non-metals:

(A) Element
Any substance which cannot be further subdivided into simpler substances by any physical or chemical
means

(B) Metals
The elements (except hydrogen) which forms +vely charged ions by loosing electrons from their
valence shell and
form oxides which are basic in nature

(C) Non metals

The elements which forms -vely charged ions by accepting electrons from their valence shell and
form oxides which are acidic or neutral in nature .

(D)Metalloids

Elements which show properties of both metals & non metals

II. Physical differences between metals and non metals

Property Metals Non metals

State Solid at room temperature Solids, liquids(Br) or gases
(except Hg & Ga). (eleven)at room temperature.
Hardness Hard & strong Soft
Except Na & K Except diamond
Lusture Possess metallic lusture. Do not possess metallic
lusture
Except graphite & iodine
Density High Low
Except Na & K Exp Diamond
MP & BP High Low
Exp Ga, Hg, Na, K Exp C, B, Si
Malleability Malleable - can be beaten Not malleable
into thin sheets.
Ductility Ductile - can be stretched Not ductile
into wire.
Tensile strength A property by virtue of which Low
a subs can bear a lot of strain Exp carbon fibre
without breaking
High
Exp Zn, arsenic, antimony,
bismuth, Hg, Ga
Conductivity Good electrical conductors Poor conductors of heat
and heat conductors.Exp Bi, anexp gas carbon, graphited
W electricity.
 Atomicity Monoatomic Polyatomic
Alloy formation Forms alloy Do not form
Solubility Usually do not dissolve in Dissolve in many liquid
liquid solvents solvents. E.g. sulphur
dissolves in carbon di
sulphide and iodine in
chloroform

III. Chemical differences between metals and non metals

Chemical property METALS NON METALS

Arrangement of Usually have 1-3 electrons in Usually have 4-8 electrons in their outer
valence electons their outer shell. shell.
Excp hydrogen has 1

Formation of ions Lose their valence Gain or share valence electrons

electrons easily, easily.
Hence form cations
Highly electropositive Hence forms anions or covalent
Na - e-1 Na +1 compounds
Highly electronegative.
O + 2e-1 O-2

Oxidising or They ionise by loss of e-s and They ionise by gain of e-s and hence are
reducing action hence are reducing agents oxidising agents
Excp- carbon is a strong reducing agent
On electrolysis These are discharged at cathode These are discharged at anode during
during electrolysis of their electrolysis of their compounds
compounds Exct- H as H+ ions are liberated at cathode
Nature of oxides Form oxides that are Form oxides that are acidic.
basic. Soluble acidic oxide dissolves in
Soluble basic oxide water forming acdic soln
dissolves in water Non- metallic oxides are covalent
forming alkaline soln
Metallic oxides are
electrovalent
Nature of chlorides Metallic chlorides are Non metallic chlorides are covalent
electrovalent (ionic) compds.
compds. They are non electrolytes
They are electrolytes
Nature of hydrides Do not form hydrides. If they Non metals form quite stable hydrides. E.g.
form, they are not very stable. CH4, H2O, NH3
E.g. NaH, CaH2
Action with acids Metals above hydrogen in Non metals do not react with dilute HCl,
activity series usually replace H2SO4
 hydrogen from dilute non-
oxidising acids (HCl, H2SO4)

M + 2HCl MCl2 + H2
M + H2SO4 MSO4 + H2

Na
Occurrence of metals Ca

(A) Occurrence in free state Mg

Only inert metals like Au, Pt, Ag occur in free state as they remain unaffected Al

Zn
by the natural elements, such as air, water CO2 etc
Fe
(B) Occurrence in combined state
Pb
The Activity series of Metals or Reactivity of Metals [H]

It is the list of metals arranged in order of their decreasing chemical activity. Cu

The most reactive metal is placed at the top (potassium) & least reactive
at bottom (gold) Hg

Ag
Main points of activity series
Pt
i. Any metal higher in the series displaces any metal below from the salt solution of the latter
Au
 ii. The larger the difference in the positions of metals in the series, more rapidly does the displacement occur
iii. Metals above hydrogen are more electropositive, metal below H are less electropositive than H
iv. Metals above hydrogen may displace H from water and from dilute acid but metals below H cannot
v. Hydrogen though a non metal has been included in the series at the position it would occupy based on its
formation of positive ions

Graded properties of metallic compounds in metal activity series

Reaction with oxygen Reaction with water Reaction with acid

K At ordinary temp forms Reacts vigorously with cold water forming alkali Reacts explosively with dil acid liberating
oxides and hydrogen hydrogen

Na 4 Na + O2 Na2O 2 Na + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2 2 Na + 2 HCl 2 NaCl + H2

Ca Oxides formed on burning Reacts smoothly with cold water to form alkali Calcium reacts less vigorously
& hydrogen
2 Ca + O2 2 CaO Ca + 2 HCl CaCl2 + H2
Ca + 2 H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2

Mg 2Mg + O2 2MgO Reacts with boiling water and steam to form Reacts with dilute acids with decreasing
metal oxide and hydrogen vigour, liberating hydrogen

Mg + H2O MgO + H2 Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

Al Forms oxide at ordinary These react only with steam to form metal oxide
temp & hydrogen

4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3 2Al + 3H2O Al2O3 + 3H2

Forms oxide on strong

heating
Zn 2Zn + H2O ZnO + H2 Zn+ 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
2Zn + O2 2ZnO

Fe 3Fe + 4 H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2 Fe+ 2HCl FeCl2 + H2

Pb 2Pb + O2 2PbO Lead reacts with conc. HCl to liberate

hydrogen
 Pb+ 2HCl PbCl2 + H2

[H]

Cu 2Cu + O2 2CuO No reaction with boiling water or steam Do not produce hydrogen on reaction with dil
or conc. acids

Hg 2Hg + O2 2HgO
Ag
Pt Oxides are not formed
Au even on strong
heating

1. Dressing of ore: It involves

The process which gives
the ore such a physical
form so that gangue can
easily be removed from it
Hand picking: big lumps of unwanted rocks Processes
remove manually involved
Grinding, crushing: big pieces are crushed in jaw during
crushers and further hammered in hammer mills metallurgy
Pulverising: crushed ore is fine powdered in ball
mills or stamp mills

2. Concentration of ore It involves

Electromagnetic separation
Gravity process
Froath floatation

3. Conversion of ore into It involves

oxide or desired
compound Calcination
Roasting
of the concentrated ore

4. Extraction of metal from It involves reduction of concentrated ore by suitable

concentrated ore reducing agents such as coke, carbon monoxide, hydrogen
or electricity

5. Refining of extracted It involves

metal
Distillation
Liquation
Polling
Oxidation
Electrolytic process
2. Concentration of ore

Electromagnetic separation
 When one component either the ore or impurity is magnetic in nature, this method can be used for
separation.
A magnetic separator consisting a belt moving on two rollers is used. One of which is a strong magnet.
The powdered ore is dropped on the belt from one end (non-magnetic) and at the other end (magnetic),
the magnetic particles are attracted and fall nearer the roller while non-magnetic particles fall away from
the roller.
Ferro-magnetic ores are concentrated by this method. For example, wolframite (FeWO4) - a magnetic
ore, is separated from the non-magnetic ore, cassiterite SnO2, by this method.

Gravity process or levigation method

When the ore particles are heavier than the gangue particles
the ore is fed into a running stream of water and impurities are washed away. T
his separation is by way of gravity or levigation method and is commonly used for oxide ores such as
hematite and native ore of Au, Ag, etc.
In order to concentrate the ore in bulk, a slanting vibrating wooden table with wooden strips called
riffles is introduced in the process. Such tables are termed Wilfley tables.
The ore is continuously washed with a fine spray of water and the rocking motion sieves the heavier
portions, while allowing the impurities to filter away.

Wilfley table for washing of the ore

 Sometimes in the gravity method, a hydraulic classifier based on the gravity method is used. Ore is
agitated by a powerful current of water pushing upwards through the bottom of a conical reservoir. The
heavier ore particles settle down and are continuously removed from another opening near the bottom,
while the lighter particles are washed away by water.

- Hydraulic classifier

Froth floatation process :

This method is used for the concentration of sulphide ores.

The method is based on the preferential wetting properties with the frothing agent and water.
The powdered ore is added to water containing pine oil (frothing agent) and sodium ethyl xanthate
(collecting agent). A vigorous stream of air is now passed through, which thoroughly agitates the mixture and
disposes the oil into colloid sized particles. As a result of this, the sulphide particles of the ore stick to the oil
droplets and rise to the surface in the form of froth supported by air bubbles. Water wets the gangue particles
which sink to the bottom. With this method, it is possible to concentrate the dense ores such as galena and zinc
blende.
3. Conversion of ore into oxide or desired compound

1. Calcination :
 It involves heating of the ore below its fusion temperature in absence of air.
It removes moisture from the ore
Calcination makes the ore porous.
It expels volatile impurities
It decomposes metal carbonates to metallic oxides
It removes water of crystallisation from the hydrated salts
The step is generally performed in reverberatory furnace.
For example :
ZnCO3 ZnO + CO2

CuCO3Cu(OH)2 2CuO + CO2 + H2O

- A reverberatory furnace
2. Roasting :

It is also heating of the ore either alone or with some other material usually in presence of air below its
fusion temperature.
It removes moisture from the ore
It makes the ore porous.
It expels volatile impurities
It removes water of crystallisation from the hydrated salts
roasting is generally done in a reverberatory furnace or in a blast furnace.
Example
4FeS2 + 11O2 2 Fe2O3 + 8SO2

3. Extraction of metal from concentrated ore/ Reduction of oxides

The metallic oxide obtained is then reduced by carbon in the form of coke, carbon monoxide or hydrogen.
Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3 CO
Fe2O3 + 3H2 2 Fe + 3H2O
NT: oxides of potassium , sodium , calcium, magnesium and aluminium cannot be reduced by carbon or
carbon monoxide or hydrogen. They have great affinity towards oxygen and so cannot be reduced by
reducing agents. They are extracted by dissolving in suitable solvents and then by electrolysing them.
4. Refining of the metal
It is the separation of the above extracted metal from the residual impurity such as:
i. Presence of other metals, non-metals such as silicon and phosphorous
ii. Unreduced oxides and sulphides of metal.

The method of purification used depends upon:

i. Nature of metal
ii. Nature of impurities present with the metal
iii. Purpose for which metal is to be used.

Different methods of refining

i. Distillation
Volatile metals (like Hg & Zn) distils over in pure form and the involatile impurity remains
behind
ii. Liquation
Metals having low M.P. (like Pb) are heated on sloping hearth of a furnace. The molten or fused
metal flows away leaving behind the impurities

Impure metal

Infusible impurity

Pure metal

iii. Oxidation
Metals (like Fe) which contain volatile impurities and can be easily oxidized are purified by this
method. The volatile oxides of Phosphorous, sulphur and other impurities rise to the surface and
are removed while while the molten metal is left behind.

iv. Electro-refining
The slab of impure metal is made the anode, while a thin sheet of pure metal is made the
cathode.
 Electrolyte used is a salt solution of a metal, which is to be refined. Pure metal deposits at the
cathode and impurities settle down forming anode mud.
Metals like Cu, Al & Zn are refined by this process.

A number of steps are involved in the extraction of metals. They can be summarised in the form of a figure as follows.
 Reactivity series and steps involved in the extraction of metals from ores

Metallurgy of Aluminium

In the metallurgy of aluminium, first the ore of aluminium is concentrated.

Removal of unwanted materials such as sand and clay from ores is known as concentration (or dressing or benefaction) of ores.

Aluminium is generally extracted from the bauxite ore. The bauxite ore can be concentrated by the process of leaching.

Leaching of alumina from bauxite

The powdered ore of bauxite is concentrated by digesting it with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution at 473-523 K and 35-36 bar pressure. As a
result, Al2O3 is leached out as sodium aluminate along with SiO2 as sodium silicate leaving behind the impurities.

Then, carbon dioxide gas is passed through the aluminate solution to neutralise it and as a result, hydrated Al 2O3 gets precipitated. Freshly prepared
hydrated Al2O3 is added to induce the precipitation.

The hydrated Al2O3 is filtered out of the solution, then dried and heated to obtain pure Al 2O3 while sodium silicate remains in the solution.

Alumina obtained is very stable and cannot be reduced using conventional reducing agents. Aluminium can be extracted from the pure alumina by the
process of electrolytic reduction.

Electrolytic Reduction of Alumina

Electrolytic cell for the extraction of aluminium

The melting point of alumina is too high to be used as an electrolyte. In this process, Na 3AlF6 or CaF2 is added to pure alumina to lower the melting
point and to increase the conductivity of the electrolyte. The inner lining of the electrolytic cell acts as the cathode and graphite rod acts as the anode.

The overall reaction that takes place is

This electrolytic process is known as Hall-Heroult process. The oxygen liberated at the anode reacts with the carbon of the anode to produce CO and
CO2. Therefore, the carbon anode has to be replaced periodically as the oxygen released oxidises it.

The cell reactions are:

At Cathode:

At Anode:

Purification of aluminium

Aluminium obtained is about 99.9 % pure. However, it can be further purified by an electrolytic process known as Hoopes process.

Uses of aluminium

Some important uses of aluminium are:

As wrappers for foods in the form of foils

In paints and lacquers

In the extraction of chromium and manganese from their oxides

In conduction of electricity in the form of wires

Alloys of aluminium are also useful as they are light. Some alloys of aluminium are:

Duralumin (95 % Al, 4 % Cu, 0.5 % Mg, 0.5 % Mn) which is used in the manufacture of aeroplanes as it is very light, strong, ductile, and
resistant to corrosion
Magnelium (90 % Al, 10 % Mg) which is used in the manufacture of light tools and machine parts as it is very light, strong, and resistant to
corrosion

Ores, Alloys, and Uses of Iron and Zinc

We know that metals are highly reactive. Therefore, they do not occur in the free state. For example, sodium, potassium, etc. are never
found in the free state and occur in nature in chemically combined forms known as minerals.

There are some minerals which contain a large amount of a particular metal and from them, metals can be extracted profitably (using
practically possible techniques).

The minerals from which metals can be extracted commercially are known as ores.

Some important ores of some metals are given in the following table.

Metal Ores
 1. Haematite, Fe2O3

2. Magnetite, Fe3O4
Iron
3. Limonite, FeO(OH).nH2O

4. Siderite, FeCO3

1. Zinc blende or

Sphalerite, ZnS
Zinc
2. Calamine, ZnCO3

3. Zincite, ZnO

Uses of iron and zinc

Uses of iron

Cast iron (a form of carbon) is used in casting stoves, railway sleepers, gutter pipes, toys, etc.
Wrought iron is used in anchors, wires, bolts, chains, etc.

Iron is used in making alloys, which have extensive use.

Uses of zinc

Zinc is used in the process of galvanisation.

It is used in batteries.

It is also used in making alloys.

Alloys of iron and zinc

Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of two or more metals. Alloys are prepared to enhance the properties of metals.

Some alloys of iron are steel, stainless steel, tungsten steel, nickel, chrome steel, etc. Steel contains carbon. The constituents of stainless steel are Fe,
C, Cr, and Ni. It is used in automobiles, cycles, pens, utensils, etc. Tungsten steel, which contains 20% tungsten, is used in high speed machinery.
Nickel steel, which contains 36% nickel, is used for making cables, automobiles, aeroplane parts, pendulum, measuring tapes, etc. Chrome steel is used
for cutting tools and crushing machines.

Zinc is a constituent of many alloys. Some of them are given in the following table.

Alloys of zinc Uses

Brass (60% Cu, 40% Zn) In musical instruments, electrical fittings

Bronze (80% Cu, 18% Sn, 2% Zn) In making screws, wires, electrical connectors, clips, statues

German silver ( 25-30% Cu, 25-30% Zn, 40-50% Ni) In making jewellery, coins