CHAPTER 6

LAGRANGES EQUATIONS
(Analytical Mechanics)

1
Ex. 1: Consider a particle moving on a
fixed horizontal surface.
z
Let, r P be the
F1
position and F be O
P y
the total force on x m (x,y,0)
the particle.
The FBD is: -mgk F1

f N
p
The equation of motion is mr F(r, r, t )
2
In component form, the equation of motion is
mxP Fx ( x, y, z, x , y , z, t )
myP Fy ( x, y, z, x , y , z, t )
mzP Fz ( x, y, z, x , y , z, t )
Also, motion is restricted to xy plane
z = 0 - equation of constraint
It is a geometric restriction on where the
particle can go in the 3-D space.
Clearly, there is a constraint reaction
(force) that needs to be included in the
total force F. 3
Ex. 2: Consider a particle moving on a surface.

z
m
O Surface
f(x,y,z)=c
x y

Now, the motion is confined to a prespecified

surface (e.g. a roller coaster). The surface is
defined by the relation:
f (x, y, z) - c = 0 - equation of constraint.
The equation of motion will again be the same. 4
 The constraints in the two examples are
geometric or configuration constraints.
They could be independent of time t, or could
depend explicitly on it. For an N particle
system, if the positions of particles are given
by r1 , r 2 , r 3 ,....., the constraint can be written
as:
f (r1 , r 2 , , r N , t ) 0
This is an equation of a finite or geometric or
holonomic constraint.
5
Ex. 3: Double pendulum: it consists of two
particles and two massless rigid rods
The masses are y
O
m1:(x1 , y1 ) l1
m2 :(x2 , y2 ) (x1,y1)
m1 l2
( z1 z2 0 : planar motion) (x2,y2)
Number of coordinates x
m2
required is 4 - used
to define the configuration
There are certain constraints on motion:
2 2 2 2 2 2
l1 ( x1 y1 ), l2 ( x2 x1 ) ( y2 y1 )
6
 2 equations of constraint (they are
holonomic, geometric, finite etc.)
Degrees-of-freedom: the number of
independent coordinates needed to
completely specify the configuration of the
system (4 - 2) = 2.
One could perhaps find another set of two
coordinates (variables) that are independent:
e.g., 1 , 2 , the two angles with the vertical.
Then, there are no constraints on 1 , 2 ,
7
Ex. 4: A dumbbell moving in space

Z m1
C

O m2
X Y

one possible specification of position is:

m1 : x1 , y1 , z1 ; m2 : x2 , y2 , z2
- these are 6 variables or coordinates,
and there is one constraint
2 2 2 2
(x2 x1 ) (y2 y1 ) (z2 z1 )
8
 degrees-of-freedom of the system 6 - 1 = 5
another possible specification for the
configuration of the system:

Z m1
C

O
m2
X Y

Location of center of mass C: (xc , yc , zc ) ;

and orientation of the rod: ( , ). These are
independent no constraint relation for
these variables. 9
 generalized coordinates - any number of
variables needed to completely specify the
configuration of a system.
e.g., for the dumbbell in space motion:
there are two sets of
(x1,y1,z1,x 2,y2,z2 ),
generalized
(xC,yC,zC, ,) coordinates

Important: some sets consist of independent

coordinates (no constraints) where as others
are not independent.
10
Ex. 5: Ice skate
Basic facts: Z Path in x-y
Configuration of the plane
skate can be specified Y
by the coordinates
(x, y) and the angle . t
P
The ice skates can
O v
only move along the
n
plane of the skate, i.e.,
in the tangent direction X
specified by angle .
(a constraint) 11
Let t - tangent to the path, n - normal to the
path. Then v n 0 for the skate, or
yj
(xi ) ( cos j sin i) 0
or x sin y cos 0 a constraint which
depends both, on
coordinates and
their time derivatives.
In general
(r1 , , r N , r1 , , r N , t ) 0
Such a constraint is called a kinematical,
differential, nonholonomic constraint.
12
We have seen then that, in general:
Holonomic constraints are of the form
j ( q1 ,...., qN , t ) 0, j 1,2,3,...., g
equality constraints involving only
generalized coordinates and time
Nonholonomic constraints are of the form

j ( q1 ,..., qN , q1 ,...., qN , t ) 0, j 1,2,3,..., d
they depend on generalized coordinates,
velocities, as well as time.

13
Fundamental difference:
A geometric constraint restricts the
configurations that can be achieved
during motion. Certain regions
(positions) are inaccessible
A kinematic constraint only restricts the
velocities that can be acquired at a given
position. The system can, however,
occupy any position desired (e.g.: one can
reach any point in the skating rink - it is
just that one cannot move in arbitrary
direction). 14
We can also write the constraints in the form:
(in differential form)
n
a ji ( q1 ,...., qn , t )dqi a jt ( q1 ,...., qn , t )dt 0,
i 1
j = 1, 2, ., d

Whether a constraint is holonomic or

nonholonomic depends on whether the
differential form is integrable or
nonintegrable.
15
Ex 6: Particle model of a skate: two equal
masses are connected by a massless rigid rod.
They slide on the XY plane. G is the centroid
of the system.
Y t m2
z1 z2 0
The other constraints G
m1
on motion are:
length is constant n
( x2 x1 )2 ( y2 y1 ) 2 2
X
(holonomic) O
Skate cannot move v G n 0
along n direction (nonholonomic)
16
We now define these constraints in terms of
the physical coordinates, and then the
generalized coordinates qi:
The CG has v G [( x1 x2 ) i ( y1 y 2 ) j ] / 2
Now n cos j sin i
cos ( x2 x1 ) / l , sin ( y2 y1 ) / l
n [( y2 y1 ) i ( x2 x1 ) j ] / l
The nonholonomic constraint is
( x1 x2 )( y2 y1 ) ( y1 y 2 )( x2 x1 ) 0
17
The coordinates are: ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
Generalized coordinates:
x1 q1 , y1 q2 , z1 q3 , x2 q4 , y2 q5 , z2 q6
Then, the constraints have to be written in
terms of qs:
z1 0 , z2 0 constraints #1 and #2
( x2 x1 ) 2 ( y2 y1 ) 2 ( z2 z1 ) 2 2 0
constraint #3
( x1 x2 )( y2 y1 ) ( y1 y 2 )( x2 x1 ) 0
constraint #4
18
Constraint #1: z1 0 z1 0
In differential form
dz1
dt 0 dz1 0 or d (q3 ) 0
dt
In general form, we have
6
a ji dqi a jt dt 0, j 1
i 1
or
a11dq1 a12 dq2 a16 dq6 a1t dt 0
a11 0, a12 0, a13 1, a14 0,
a15 0, a16 0, a1t 0
19
Constraint #2: z2 0 z2 0
In differential form
dz2
dt 0 dz2 0 or d (q6 ) 0
dt
In general form, we have
6
a ji dqi a jt dt 0, j 2
i 1
or
a21dq1 a22 dq2 a26 dq6 a2t dt 0
a21 0, a22 0, a23 0, a24 0,
a25 0, a26 1, a2t 0
20
 constraint #3:
( x2 x1 ) ( y2 y1 ) ( z2 z1 ) 0
2 2 2 2

In differential form
( x2 x1 )(dx2 dx1 ) ( y2 y1 )(dy2 dy1 )
( z2 z1 )(dz2 dz1 ) 0
or ( x1 x2 )dx1 ( x2 x1 )dx2 ( y1 y2 )dy1 ( y2 y1 )dy2
( z1 z2 )dz1 ( z2 z1 )dz2 0
or
(q1 q4 )dq1 (q4 q1 )dq4 (q2 q5 )dq2
(q5 q2 )dq5 (q3 q6 )dq3 (q6 q3 )dq6 0
21
 constraint #4:
( x1 x2 )( y2 y1 ) ( y1 y 2 )( x2 x1 ) 0
In Differential form:
(q5 q2 )(dq1 dq4 ) (q4 q1 )(dq2 dq5 ) 0
or
(q5 q2 )dq1 (q4 q1 )dq2 (q5 q2 )dq4
(q4 q1 )dq5 (0)dq5 (0)dq6 0

22
 differential form of constraints (in
general): n a dq a dt 0, j 1,2,3,.....m
ji i jt
i 1

A constraint (or differential form) is integrable

if
a ji qk a jk qi
a ji t a jt qi , i, k 1,2,..., n

These are conditions for exactness (of a

differential form)
23
 Ex 7: Consider a constraint a11 x1 a12 x2 a1t 0
In differential form, it is : a11dx1 a12 dx2 a1t dt 0
Suppose that a11 , a12 , a1t are constants.
Clearly, the constraint is integrable:
The integrated form is: a11 x1 a12 x2 a1t t c
Mathematically, if integrable, there is a
function such that d dt 0
or dx1 dx2 dt 0
x1 x2 t
a11 x1 , a12 x2 , a1t t 24
 2
a12 a11
Clearly, then 0
x1 x2 x2 x2 x1 x2
a11 a12
or
x2 x1

Similarily a11 a1t

0 ,
a12 a1t
0
t x1 t x2

These are sufficient conditions for the

constraint to be integrable.

25
e.g.: consider the constraint #3 (j = 3)
( q1 q4 )dq1 ( q4 q1 )dq4 ( q2 q5 )dq2
( q5 q2 )dq5 0
Here a j1 q1 q4 , a j 2 q2 q5 , a j 3 0
Thus a j1 / q2 0 a j 2 / q1
Similarly a j 4 q4 q1 , a j 5 q5 q2 , a j 6 0
and a j1 / q4 1 a j 4 / q1 , etc.
This constraint is integrable.
26
Also, a j1 / q3 0 a j 3 / q1
a j5
a j1 / q5 0 ; a j5 q5 q2
q1
a j1 / q6 0 a j 6 / q1 ; a jt / q1 a j1 / t 0
a j 2 / q3 0 a j 3 / q2
.
.

27
Now, consider constraint #4:
( q5 q2 )dq1 ( q4 q1 )dq2 ( q5 q2 )dq4
( q4 q1 )dq5 0
Then a41 q5 q2 , a42 ( q4 q1 ), a43 0,

or, a41 / q2 1 a42 / q1 1

not an exact differential; i.e., it is not an
integrable constraint.

28
Classification: an N particle system is said to be:
Holonomic - if all constraints are geometric,
or if kinematic - are integrable (reducible to
geometric).
Nonholonomic - if there is a constraint which
is kinematic and not integrable.
Schleronomic - all the constraints, geometric
as well as kinetic, are independent of time t
explicitly.
Rheonomic - if at least one constraint
depends explicitly on time t.
29
Possible and Virtual Displacements
Suppose that a system of N particles, with
position vectors r1 , r 2 ,, r N has d
geometric constraints
i ( r1 , r 2 , r 3 ,...., r N , t ) 0, i 1,2,3,...., d ,
and g kinematic constraints
N
l ji r j Dj 0 , i 1,2,..., g
i 1

Here l ji l ji ( r1 , r 2 , r 3 ,...., r N , t ), etc.

30
In differential form
N

ij r j i / t 0 , i 1,2,..., d (1)
j 1

and
N
l ji r j Dj 0 , i 1,2,..., g (2)
i 1

For the given system at time t, with

position fixed by the values of r1 , r 2 ,...., r N ,
the velocities cannot be arbitrary. They
must satisfy d + g equations.

31
Possible velocities: the set of all velocities
which satisfy the (d + g) linear equations of
constraints.
3N > (d + g) infinity of possible velocities.
One of these is realized in an actual motion
of the system. Let
d ri ri dt , i 1,2,...., N
These are the possible (infinitesimal)
displacements. They satisfy
N

ij d r j
i
dt 0 , i 1,2,...., d (3)
j 1 t 32
 N
and l ji d r i D j dt 0 , j 1,2,...., g (4)
i 1

Again, there are d + g equations in 3N

possible (scalar) displacements d r i , i 1,2,, N .
Consider two sets of possible displacements
at the same instant at a given position of the
system:
d ri v i dt and d r i v i dt , i 1,2,..., N

Both these displacements satisfy the above

equations. 33
 Taking their differences
N

ij (d r j d r j ) 0 , i 1,2,..., d
i 1

and N
l ji ( d r j d r j ) 0 , i 1,2,..., g
i 1

These are homogeneous relations not

involving (dt).
Def: r i d r d r - virtual displacement
Virtual displacement a possible displacement
with frozen time. (dt set to 0).
34
 Note: If the constraints are independent of
time (schleronomic), a possible displacement
= virtual displacement.
Ex 8: A particle is moving dr=vdt
on a fixed surface defined
by f (x, y, z) c = 0. The P Surface
velocity v is always z f(x,y,z)=c
tangent to the surface
dr n rn 0
x y
where
f f f
n f/ f , f i j k
x y z 35
 Ex 9: A particle is moving on a surface
which itself moves to the right with velocity u.

Possible velocities v u
v vR u vr
(v R relative velocity) P Surface
Possible displacements f(x,y,z)=c(t)
z
dr v dt (v R u )dt
Two possible displacements:
x y
dr (v R u )dt , d r (v R u )dt
36
 Thus, a virtual displacement is
r dr dr (v R v R )dt rR rR
n

dr
u
u r

Note that et
d r is along absolute velocity direction,
whereas r is along relative velocity or
tangent to the surface (frozen constraint)
(set dt = 0). 37
Degrees-of-freedom:
N - number of particles
(d + g) - geometric + kinematic constraints
there are n = 3N - (d + g) independent
virtual displacements
Problem of Dynamics:
Given a system with - external forces
Fi F i (r, r, t ), i 1, 2,...., N ;
Initial positions r io , and initial velocities v io
compatible with constraints; we need to
38
determine the motion of the system of particles,
i.e., the positions ( r i (t )), the velocities ri , and the
constraint or reaction forces R i , i 1,2,, N .

mi
ri Fi R i , i 1,2,..., N
(3N equations)
N
ij r j i / t 0, i 1,2,..., d
j 1
(d equations)
N
l ji d r i D j dt 0, j 1,2,..., g
i 1
(g equations)

39
 In these equations, the unknowns are: r i , R i -
6N unknowns
Thus, additional relations required:
6N - (3N + d + g) = 3N - (d + g) n
(equal to the number of degrees-of-freedom)
Need to define concept of workless constraints.
6.4 Virtual Work
Definition: A workless constraint is any
constraint such that the virtual work (work
done in a virtual displacement) of the
constraint forces acting on the system is zero
for any reversible virtual displacement. 40
Ex 10: Consider a double pendulum.
The positions are: X
r1 x1 i y1 j O
l
r 2 x2 i y 2 j A
Constraints are: 1 m
( x1 y1 ) 0
2 2 2
(1) 2
l
Y m
or x1 x1 y1 y1 0 B
(differential form)
2
( x2 x1 ) ( y2 y1 ) 2
2
0 (2)
41
or ( x2 x1 )( x2 x1 ) ( y2 y1 )( y 2 y1 ) 0
(differential form)
Consider FBDs
Then, T1 1
1
1
tan ( x1 / y1 ) A
1 ( x2 x) T2
2
tan
y2 y1 mg 2

The equations of motion for A are:

x : mx1 T2 sin 2 T1 sin 1 (3)
y : my1 T2 cos 2 T1 cos 1 mg (4)
42
The equations of motion for B are:
2
T2
B
x : mx2 T2 sin 2 (5)
y : my2 mg T2 cos 2 (6)
mg

2 N differential equations of motion

2 equations of constraint
variables (unknowns): x1 (t ), y1 (t )
x2 (t ), y2 (t ) T1 (t ), T2 (t )
43
Ex 11: Consider the motion of an ideal pendulum
The position is X
r xi y j O
l
Newtons Law:

r
xi
yj 1
m g

F mr A
Y
FBD: Ry
The reaction A
force is: Rx
R=Rx i+ Ry j
mg
44
Newtons 2nd law gives
x : Rx mx (1)
y : Ry mg my (2)
Constraint on motion is:
2 2 2
x y l 0 (3)
or xx yy 0 ( r r 0)
(differentiated form)
or x dx + y dy = 0
(differential form)

45
Counting: 3 equations
4 variables x, y , Rx , Ry

Need one more relation:

- something about the nature of the
constraint force R Rx i Ry j

Hindsight: We know R along the rod

normal to the direction of velocity does
no work in motion of the particle (motion
that is consistent with the constraint).
46
Work done in a virtual displacement of the
N
system W R r i
i 1 i

Ex 12: Consider a particle en

moving on a smooth R
surface. Then the work P
done by the constraint
force R in a virtual r
displacement r et
(consistent with constraint) is
W R r Rn r 0
47
Ex 13: Consider the same situation, with the
particle now moving on a moving surface:
en
Here again R
W Rn r 0 P
dr
Note however that udt
u r u
R d r 0 since
et
d r is not in the tangent direction.
Ex 14: Consider two particles connected by
Z m2
a rigid rod:
O m1 l
X Y 48
 dr2
Z
eR m2
O
X R2
Y m1
dr1 R1
R1 R2 R2 e R where R 2 R2 R1
e R unit vector from m1 to m2
The length constraint is: ( r1 r 2 ) ( r1 r 2 ) l 0
2

Differentiating, the constraint on possible

displacements is: ( r1 r 2 ) (d r1 d r 2 ) 0
Thus, ( r1 r 2 ) ( r1 r 2 ) 0 e R ( r1 r2 )
or e R r1 e R r 2 49
 w virtual work done on the system (the
two particles)
R1 r1 R 2 r 2 R2 e R r1 R2 e R r 2
R2 (e R r1 e R r 2 ) 0
Other examples of workless constraints:
hinged constraints; sliding on smooth
surfaces; rolling without slipping, etc.
Remark: Reaction forces corresponding to
workless constraints may do work on
individual components of the system.
50
 en
Ex 15: A particle moves on
a fixed rough surface. R
f= k|R|
P
Clearly, the r
work done by the f(x,y,z)=0
et
normal force R in a virtual
displacement is R r 0
Note that the friction force
does do work it can be
accounted for by treating
f k R
as an external force. 51
 The Principle of Virtual Work:

Consider a system of N particles, with positions

r i , i 1,2,..., N
Forces acting on the ith particle of mass
mi :
F i Ri } workless constraint forces

external as well
as constraint forces
not accounted for in workless constraint forces.

52
 Static equilibrium for the ith particle
F i R i 0, i 1,2,..., N

Suppose that the system also satisfies some

constraints:
N

ij r j 0, i 1,2,..., d geometric
j 1

N
l ji r i 0, j 1,2,..., g kinematic
i 1

(these are requirements written in terms of the

virtual displacements) 53
Now, virtual work done by all the forces acting
on the system as a result of an arbitrary virtual
displacement r i at a given system
configuration is
N
W (F i Ri ) ri
i 1

(Note: r i are required to satisfy the

constraint relations, i.e., are the possible
infinite displacement with frozen time).
Assume workless constraints:
N
Ri ri 0 54
i 1
 N
F i ri W 0 (scalar eqn.)
i 1

If a system of particles with workless constraints

is in static equilibrium, the virtual work of the
applied forces is zero for any virtual
displacement consistent with constraints.
Also, if the work done at a given
configuration is zero in any arbitrary virtual
displacement from that configuration, the
system must be in static equilibrium.
Principle of virtual work. 55
Ex 16:A inhomogeneous rod AB is resting on two
smooth planes. The rod is nonuniform with its
center of mass located at G: AG:GB = k:(1k).
Find: The equilibrium position of the rod.
l(1-k) B
(l)k g
A G

O
The constraints are: the ends must remain in
contact with respective surfaces. 56
To properly set up the problem, we need to
first define a coordinate system so that the
appropriate position vectors can be defined.
Then, we can define the constraints and the
virtual displacements.
Let z A and zB- positions of A and B along
the inclined surfaces. Also, - the angle of
inclination of the rod. The constraints are:
cos ( Z A Z B )cos
sin (Z B Z A )sin

57
The variables are described here on the
picture more clearly:

B
G

h A
zB
O
zA

58
A possible set of virtual displacements
consistent with constraints are shown here:

G B
A
h B
G zB
zA A zB
zA O

59
FBD:
B
G
A RB
W
RA

Principle of virtual work:

R A r A R B r B W rG 0

= 0 (workless constraints)
W r 0 or W h 0 h 0
W j ( xi h j) 0 60
Now,
h z A sin k sin
h z A sin k cos
constraints:
z A zB l cos / cos , zB z A l sin / sin
cos sin 1
zA
cos sin 2
1 cos sin sin cos
2 cos sin
or z A l sin( ) / sin 2
61
differentiating, we get
zA {l cos( ) / sin 2 } .
Thus,
h {l cos( )sin / sin 2 }
kl cos
l cos( )
{ sin kl cos } 0
sin 2
arbitrary virtual displacement
{ sin cos( ) / sin 2 k cos } 0
or tan (2k 1) / tan
62
DAlemberts Principle:
Consider a system with
N particles, the masses are given by mi
The external force on ith particle F i (t , r, r)
geometric constraints:
f i ( r1 , r 2 ,...., r N , t ) 0, i 1,2,...., d ,
kinematic constraints:
N
l ij r j Di ( r, t ) 0, i 1,2,...., g
j 1
constraints reaction forces
R i ,( r, r, t ), i 1,2,..., N
63
 The equations of motion are:
mi
r i F i R i , i 1,2,...., N
These are subject to the constraints: (in
differential form)
N
( fi / r j ) d r j ( f i / t )dt 0, i 1,2,...., d
j 1

N
l ij d r j Di ( r, t )dt 0, i 1,2,...., g
j 1

64
 Then, the relations satisfied by virtual
displacements are
N
( fi / r j ) r j 0, i 1,2,...., d
j 1

and
N
l ij r j 0, i 1,2,...., g
j 1

The condition on constraint forces for the

constraints to be workless is:
N
Ri ri 0
i 1
65
Newtons law
N N
mi
r i ri (F i Ri ) r i
i 1 i 1

Workless constraints
N DAlemberts
(mi
ri F i ) ri 0
i 1 Principle
(a single scalar equation)

(Note: r i are not independent. They

satisfy the differential constraints).
66
Ex 17: Spherical pendulum with variable
length

particle of mass m O
r (a b cos t ),
a b 0. r(t)

P e
X Y
e r , e in OPZ plane;
r Z e
e to OPZ plane er
mg
67
position of the ball: r P re r
velocity: r P re r re r
or r P re r r e r sin e
acceleration: r ( r r 2 r 2 sin 2 )e r
(r 2r r sin cos )e ( r sin
2

2r sin 2r cos )e
virtual displacement:
possible velocity r P re r r e r sin e
possible displ. d r dre r rd e rd sin e
constraint: r a b cos t 68
or dr (b sin t )dt
sinceconstraint frozen dt 0 dr 0
virtual displacement: r r e r sin e
External force acting:
F mg cos er mg sin e mgK
DAlemberts Principle
(mr F ) r 0
Note: on the FBD of the particle, tension
force also acts along the rod - a workless
constraint force
69
 mr[ g sin (r
2r r sin cos )]
2

mr sin [r sin 2r sin

2r cos ] 0
, independent virtual displacements
( ) ( ) 0
(r 2r r 2 sin cos ) g sin 0;
r sin 2r sin 2r cos 0
(equations of motion)
Here r a b cos t 0
70
 6.5 Generalized Coordinates and Forces
Ex 18: consider the double pendulum:
the position vectors are
X
r1 x1 i y1 j O
l
r2 ( x1 x2 )i ( y1 y2 ) j y1
A
the constraints are 1 m1(x1,y1)
2 2 2 x1
1x y 1
l1
0 l
2 2 2 y2
2
x y 2
l 2
0 2
Y m2
x2 B

71
Thus, there are:
4 (or 6 counting zs) variables or generalized
coordinates
2 (or 4 if z included) constraints ( z1 0, z2 0)
n = degrees of freedom = 2.
Need only 2 independent variables (for
geometric constraints case) to specify the
configuration at any given time
e.g.: let y1 , y2 be the two chosen independent
coordinates. Then, we can write
x1 (l12 y12 ), x2 (l22 y22 ) 72
r1 l12 y12 ) i y1 j r1 ( y1 )
2 2 2 2
r2 { l 1
y 1
(l 2
y )}i ( y1
2
y2 ) j
r 2 ( y1 , y2 )
Note: geometric constraint now
automatically satisfied.
Another possible choice of generalized
coordinates are:
1, 2 angles with y axis

73
Then
x1 l1 sin 1 , y1 l1 cos 1

x2 l2 sin 2 , y2 l2 cos 2

r1 l1 (sin 1 i cos 1
j) r1 ( 1 , 2 )
r2 l1 (sin 1 l2 sin 2 )i
(l1 cos 1
l2 cos 2 ) j r2 ( 1, 2 )

Again: geometric constraints automatically

satisfied.
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