Compendium Notes Chapters 5, 6, 7 and Aids Supplement

Index:
Cardiovascular System (Pages 1 – 3)
Blood (Pages 4 – 7)
Lymphatic System and Immunity (Pages 8 – 13)
Aids (Pages 14 – 15)

Compendium Notes Chapter 5 – Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels

5.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System (Mader p. 86)

-Cardiovascular system: Consists of (1) Heart which pumps blood to (2) Blood vessels.

Functions of the cardiovascular system:

(1) Contractions of the heart generates blood pressure, which moves blood
(2) Blood vessels transport the blood, which moves from the heart into arteries,
capillaries, and veins before returning
(3) Exchanges at the capillaries (smallest of vessels) refreshes blood and tissue fluid
(sometimes called interstitial fluid).
(4) Heart and blood vessels regulate blood flow according to needs of body

-Lymphatic System: Collect excess tissue fluid and return it to cardio system. Water
enters lymph vessels. As soon as fluid enters lymph vessels, called lymph.

5.2 The Types of Blood Vessels (Mader p. 87)

-Arteries: Has three layers. Innermost is thin layer called endothelium, middle thick
smooth muscle and elastic tissue, and outer is connective tissue.
-Arterioles: Small arteries just visible to naked eye.
-Capillaries: Arterioles branch into capillaries. Each is very narrow, micro tube with a
wall composed only of endothelium (*a single layer of cells).
-Capillary Beds: No cell is far from capillary because of these.
-Veins: Back to heart (except for cardiac veins).
-Venules: Small veins that drain blood from capillaries and join to form a vein.
 -Valves: Veins have valves to keep from flowing backward.
-*In any one time, 70% of blood is in veins.

(Mader p. 87)

5.3 The Heart is a Double Pump (Mader p. 88 – 91)

-Heart: Cone-shaped, muscular organ located between lungs and behind sternum.
-Myocardium: Consists largely of cardiac muscle tissue. Serviced by coronary artery and
cardiac vein (not by blood it pumps).
-Pericardium: Surrounds the heart; thick, membranous sack that support and protects.
Inside is lubricated with secretions.
-Septum: Separates the heart into right and left side.
-Heart has four chambers:
(1) Right and left atria (upper portion of heart) – thin walled
(2) Right and left ventricles (lower portion) – thick walled
-Atrioventricular Valves: Lie between atria and ventricles (supported by chordae
tendineae).
-AV valve on right called tricuspid (three flaps)
-AV valve on left called bicuspid (two flaps)
-Semi-lunar Valves: Lie between ventricles and attached vessels.
-Pulmonary Semilunar Valve: Between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk.
-Aortic Semilunar Valve: Between left ventricle and aorta.

Path of Blood through Heart:

(1) Superior vena cava and inf. vena cava carry O2 poor blood and enter right atrium
(2) Right atrium send blood through atrioventricular valve (tri) to right ventricle
(3) Right ventricle sends blood through pulm. semilunar valve into pulm. trunk. The
pulm. trunk (carries O2 poor blood) divides into two pulm. arteries, which go to
the lungs.
(4) Four pulm. veins (carry O2 rich blood) enter left atrium.
(5) Left atrium sends blood through atrioventricular valve (bicuspid) to left ventricle.
(6) Left ventricle sends blood through the aortic semilunar valve into aorta to the
body.

-Cardiac Cycle: Each heartbeat is called a cardiac cycle.

-Systole: Working phase, refers to contraction of the chambers.
-Diastole: Resting phase, refers to relaxation of the chambers.
-Nodal tissue has both muscular and nervous characteristics
-SA (sinoatrial) Node: Located in the upper dorsal wall of right atrium
-Initiates heartbeat every .85 seconds. Called pacemaker.
-AV (atrioventricular) Node: Located in the base of the right atrium near septum.
-Travels to AV Bundle before reaching smaller Purkinje Fibers.
-ECG (Electrocardiugram): Records the electrical changes that occur in myocardium
during cardiac cycle.

5.4 Features of the Cardiovascular System (Mader p. 92 – 93)

-Blood Pressure: the pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel.
-Systolic Pressure: Highest arterial pressure reached during ejection of blood from the
heart.
-Diastolic Pressure: Occurs while the heart ventricles are relaxing.
-Blood moves slow through capillaries and allows time for exchange of substances
between blood and surrounding tissues.

Blood flow in veins:

(1) Skeletal muscle pump
-Moving muscles push blood toward heart (with help of valves)
(2) Respiratory pump
-When inhale, chest expands, and reduces pressure in thoracic cavity. Blood flows
form high pressure to low. When exhale, pressure reverses.
(3) Valves in veins
-Don’t allow backward flow.

5.5 Two Cardiovascular Pathways (Mader p. 94 – 96)

-Pulmonary Circuit: Exchange of Gases

-Systemic Circuit: Exchanges with Tissue Fluid

5.5 Exchanges at the Capillaries (Mader p. 96)

*See Mader p. 96.

5.7 Cardiovascular Disorders

-Hypertension: High blood pressure.

-Atherosclerosis: Accumulation of soft masses of fatty materials, including cholesterol,
beneath the inner ling of arteries; called plaque.
-Thrombus: A clot that remains stationary.
-Embolus: A clot that dislodges and moves with blood.
-Thromboembolus: Moved with blood, but is now stationary.
-Stroke: Cerebrovascular accident (CVA). Small cranial arteriole bursts or is blocked by
embolus.
-Heart Attack: Myocardial infarction (MI). Partially blocked coronary artery is called
angina pectoris.

Compendium Notes Chapter 6 – Cardiovascular System; Blood

6.1 Blood an Overview (Mader p. 106 – 107)

Functions of Blood:
(1) Blood is primary transport medium.
(2) Defends against invasion by pathogens.
(3) Blood has regulatory functions (temp and pH).

Composition of Blood:
-Blood is a tissue that contains cells and cell fragments.
-Collectively called formed elements.
-Cell and cell fragments suspended in liquid called plasma.
-Formed elements: Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, Platelets
-All produced in red bone marrow.
-Contains stem cells.
-Red blood cells
-2 to 3 times smaller than white
-Many more of them than white
-Plasma
-Liquid medium for carrying various substances in blood (and distributes heat)
-91% of plasma is water
-Remaining 9% is various salts (ions) and organic molecules.
-Salt part of buffer to help maintain pH of blood
-Small org. molecules like glucose and amino acids are nutrients for cells
-Urea is nitrogenous waste product on way to kidneys for excretion
-Most abundant org. molecules in blood are plasma proteins.
-Liver produces plasma proteins. They help maintain homeostasis. Able to take up
and release hydrogen ions and help keep blood pH around 7.4
-Too large to pass through capillary walls and remain in blood. They establish
osmotic gradient (force that prevents excessive loss of plasma from capillaries
into tissue fluid).

(Mader p. 106)
Types of plasma proteins:
(1) Albumins
a. Most abundant and contribute to osmotic pressure. Help transport other
org. molecules
(2) Globulins
a. Alpha, beta and gamma. Alpha and beta combine with and help transport
substance in blood such as hormones, cholesterol and iron. Gamma
produced by white blood cells and help fight disease.
(3) Fibrinogen
a. Active in formation of blood clots.

6.2 Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen (Mader p. 108 – 109)

-RBC’s also called erythrocytes

-Biconcave disks that lack nucleus.
-Hemoglobin: Lack nucleus and instead have this.
-Globin is a protein that contains four highly folded polypeptide chains.
-Heme contains iron group in the center of each polypeptide chain.
-*Iron combines (reversible) with oxygen (accepts O2 in lungs and lets go in
tissues).
-280 million hemoglobin molecules in one RBC
-When O2 binds with heme it’s called Oxyhemoglobin.
-Deoxyhemoglobin: When heme gives up O2 in tissue and resumes former shape.

Disorders:
-Anemia: RBC’s do not have enough hemoglobin.
-Hemolysis: Rupturing of RBC’s.
-Sickle-Cell Disease: Hereditary condition where individual has sick-shaped RBC’s that
tend to rupture as they pass through narrow capillaries.
-Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn: Type of hemolytic anemia.

(Mader p. 108)

6.3 White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease (Mader p. 110 – 111)

-White blood cells are larger than RBCs

-Production of each type of white blood cell is regulated by protein called colony-
stimulating factor (CSF)
-Phagocytosis: Cell surrounds a pathogen and engulfs it. Some white’s are good at this.
-Vesicle moves toward and fuses with a lysosome (enzymes digest pathogen).
-Other white blood cells produce antibodies, proteins that combine with antigens (foreign
proteins).

Types of White Blood Cells:

(1) Granular Leukocytes
a. Neutrophils account for 50 – 70% of whites. Have multilobed nucleus.
First responders to bacterial infection, with intense phagocytic activity.
They are “vacuum cleaners.” Their death in large numbers results in pus.
b. Basophils have U-shaped or lobed nucleus. In connective tissue, they
release histamine associated with allergic reactions.
(2) Agranular Leukocytes
a. Lymphocytes account for 25 – 35% of whites. Responsible for specific
immunity to ppathogens and toxins.
i. *Accountable for B Cells and T Cells that protect by producing
antiobodies – proteins that cobine with target and mark for
destruction.
ii. *Some T Cells (cytotoxic T cells) directly destroy pathogens.
b. Monocytes: Largest of white blood cells. Also “vacuum cleaners.”

Disorder w/ White Blood Cells

-Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease (SCID): Stem cells of white blood cells
lack enzyme and the body cannot fight infections at ALL.
-Leukemia: Means, “white blood;” uncontrolled white blood cell growth, but immature
and incapable of normal defense.

6.4 Platelets and Blood Clotting (Mader p. 113)

-Platelets also called Thrombocytes

-*Result from fragmentation of large cells called Megakaryocytes (in red bone
marrow).
-Involved in clotting
-Also involved are proteins thrombin and fibrinogen (manufactured in liver and
put in blood).

Clotting:
-Initiated when platelets and damaged tissue release prothrombin activator
-Converts prothrombin to thrombin.
-Thrombin acts as enzyme that severs two short amino acid chains from fibrinogen
molecules.
-Activated fragments join end to end, forming long thread of fibrin.
-Fibrin threads wind around platelet plug in damaged area of blood vessel and provide
frame work for clot. RBC’s trapped also.
-As soon as blood vessel repair is initiated, enzyme called plasmin destroys fibrin
network and restores fluidity of plasma.
-Serum: yellowish fluid that escapes from clot that contains all components of plasma
except fibrinogen and prothrombin.

6.5 Blood Typing and Transfusions (Mader p. 114 – 115)

-Blood transfusions are safely done to avoid agglutination (clumping of RBC’s).

-Blood typing involves determinding the ABO blood group and whether the individual is
Rh- or Rh+.
-Plasma membranes of RBC’s carry glycoproteins that can be antigens to other
people.
-*ABO blood typing is based presence or absence of two possible antigens: A antigen and
B antigen.

*See Mader p. 114 for pictures of blood typing.

 Compendium Notes Chapter 7 – Lymphatic System and Immunity

7.1 Microbes, Pathogens, and You (Mader p. 122 – 125)

-Human infectious diseases are caused by bacteria and viruses collectively called
pathogens.
-Bacteria: Single-celled prokaryotes – no nucleus.
(1) Bacillus – rod shape
(2) Coccus – spherical shape
(3) Spirillum is curved.

Bacteria (prokaryote):
-Capsule (some have this); thick walled gummy consistency for sticking (such as to
teeth).
-Flagella
-Fimbriae: Stiff fibers that allow adhere to surfaces such as host cells.
-Pilus: Elongated hollow appendage used to transfer DNA from one cell to another.
-*and more… see Mader p. 122

(Mader p. 122)

Virus:
-Viruses bridge the gap between living and nonliving. Outside host, viruses are
essentially chemical that can be stored on a shelf.
-Acellular – not composed of cells.
-Four times smaller than bacteria, which is about 100x smaller than a eukaryotic cell.
 (Mader p. 123)

Prions
-Prion: proteinaceous infectious particles
-Mad cow disease is a Prion
-Originally thought to be virus

7.2 Lymphatic System (Mader p. 126 – 129)

-Consists of lymphatic vessels and lymphatic organs.

-closely associated with cardio system.

Four Main Functions that Contr. to Homeostasis

(1) Lymphatic capillaries absorb excess tissue fluid and return it to the bloodstream
(2) In small intestines, lymphatic capillaries called lacteals absorb fats in the form of
lipoproteins and transport to bloodstream
(3) Lymphatic system is responsible for production, maintenance, and distribution of
lymphocytes.
(4) Lymphatic system helps defend the body against pathogens.

Lymphatic vessels:
-One way system of capillaries, vessels, and ducts that take lymph to cardio veins in the
shoulders.
-Lymphatic capillaries: Take up excess tissue fluid.
-Ducts (highways): Thoracic duct (larger) and right lymphatic duct (smaller).
-Thoracic returns lymph collected from body below the thorax, left arm, and left
side of head and neck into the right subclavian vein.

Lymphatic Organs:
-Lymphatic organs are divided into:
(1) Primary: Red bone marrow and the thymus gland.
(2) Secondary: Lymph nodes and spleen.
-Red bone marrow: Central fort that puts the troops (white blood cells) through training.
-Lymphocytes come in the form of “B cells” or “T cells”.
-Thymus: Special training center for T cells to mature (because B cells mature in bone
marrow).
-Located in the thoracic cavity between the trachea and the sternum, superior to
the heart.
-Has two functions:
(1) Produces thymus hormones, such as thmosin, that are thought to aid in the
maturation of T lymphocytes.
 (2) Immature T lymphocytes migrate from bone marrow through bloodstream to
thymus, for maturation.
-Spleen
-Filters blood.
-Lymph nodes
-Occur along lymphatic vessels, filter lymph.
-Lymphatic nodules
-Concentrations of lymphatic tissue not surrounded by a capsule. Tonsils are
example.
-Peyer’s patches
-Located in intestinal wall and the appendix – encounter pathogens that enter the
body by way of the intestinal tract.

7.3 Nonspecific Defenses (Mader p. 128 – 129)

Barriers to Entry (first line)

-Skin and mucous membranes
-Chemical barriers
-Resident Bacteria

Inflammatory Response (second line)

-Mainly neutrophils and macrophages surrounding and killing pathogens
-If neutrophils are overwhelmed, call in cytokines (cytokines attract more white
blood cells to area, including monocytes)

Complementary Proteins
-Complement system: They are involved and amplify inflammatory response (can also
attract phagocytes to the scene).
-Membrane Attack Complex: Produces holes in surface of bacteria and viruses (fluids and
salts enter bacterial cell or virus to point of burst).
-Interferons: Proteins produced by virus-infected cells as a warning to non-infected cell in
area.

7.4 Specific Defenses (Mader p. 130 – 135)

-Specific defenses depend on the action of B Cells and T Cells (lymphocytes)
-Able to recognize antigens because they have specific receptors.
-Each lymphocyte has only one type of receptor (receptor and antigen fit together
like a lock and key).
-During maturation of B Cells and/or T Cells, diversification occurs to extent that there
are SPECIFIC B cells/T Cells for ANY antigen.

B Cells and Antibody-Mediated Immunity

-Receptor on a B Cell is called a “BCR”
-Antigen selects, then binds to BCR and then B Cell multiplies itself (clonal
selection model)
-Some cloned B Cells become memory cells (long-term immunity) and some become
plasma cells (larger than regular B cells with extensive rough ER for mass production of
antibodies to specific antigen).
-If antigen comes around again, memory B cells quickly divide and give rise to
more plasma cells
-Once threat of infection has passed, plasma cell production ceases and present cells
undergo apoptosis (cell death).

Structure of Antibody
-Basic unit of molecule is a Y-shaped protein with two arms (See Mader p. 132).
-Neutralization: A clump of antigens combine with antibodies, termed immune complex.
This is like a beacon for white blood cells to kill.

Classes of Antibodies
-Five different classes of circulating antibodies.
-IgG are major type in blood. They bind to pathogens and toxins.
-IgM are first produced by a newborn. First to appear with infection and first to
leave. (Good activators of complement system).
-IgA are main type of antibody found in saliva, tears, mucus and breast milk
(secretions).
-IgD serve as antigen receptors on immature B Cells.
-IgE are responsible for prevention of parasitic worm infections, but also cause
allergic responses.

T Cells and Cell-Mediated Immunity

-T cells attack diseased cells and cancer cells. Other T cells release cytokines that
stimulate both nonspecific and specific defenses.
-When T cell leave thymus, it has a unique TCR 9receptor).
-T cells are unable to recognize an antigen without help.
-T Cells have help from antigen-presenting cell (APC) such as a macrophage.
-Activated T cells and all daughter cells can recognize “foreign” from “self”.
*Complicated* (See Mader p. 134).
-Cytotoxic T Cells: Paratrooper that carry rifles with bayonets. After a cyto T cell binds to
a virus-infected cell or tumor cell, it releases perforin molecules, which punch holes into
the plasma membrance, forming a pore. Then cyto T cell delivers granzymes into the
pore, and these causes the cell to undergo apoptosis.

-Helper T Cells: Despite name, they are like general that do not fight directly. Instead,
they regulate immunity by secreting cytokines (chemical (order) that enhance the
response of all types of immune cells. B cells cannot be activate without T cell help (HIV
infects helper T cells and other cells and inactivates immune response_.

-Memory T Cells: Remain in body and can jump-start immune reaction to antigen
previously present.

Acquired Immunity

-Active Immunity: Individual produces antibodies against an antigen.

-Passive Immunity: Individual is given prepared antibodies via an injection.

Active Immunity
-Occurs naturally after a person is infected with pathogen. Also, vaccines are in this
category because the person isn’t sick yet, but they can build a tolerance with help of
vaccine.

Passive Immunity
-Person is given prepared antibodies or immune cells to combat a disease. Passive
immunity is temp. because their body is not producing the plasma cells.

Monoclonal Antibodies
-Every plasma cell derived from same B cell secretes antibodies against specific antigen.
These are called monoclonal antibodies because all of them are the same type and
because they are produced by plasma cells derived form the same B cell.
-Mostly produced “in glass jar” outside of body.

Cytokines and Immunity

-Cytokines are signaling molecules produced by T lymphocyte, macrophages and other
cells.
-Cytokines regulate white blood cell formation.

7.6 Hypersensitivity Reactions (Mader p. 138 – 139)

-Sometimes immune system responds in manner that harms body – such as allergies,
incompatible bloody type, tissue rejection, or autoimmune disease.

Allergies
-Hypersensitivity to substances (allergens)
-Immediate Allergic Response: Caused by antibodies IgE that are attached to receptors on
plasma membrane of mast cells (antibodies produced b/c of allergen) in the tissues and
also to basophils in the blood. When allergen attaches to IgE antibodies on these cells,
they release histamine and other substances that bring about allergic symptoms.
-Anaphylactic Shock: Immediate allergic response that occurs because allergen has
entered bloodstream.
-Delayed Allergic Response: Initiated by memory T Cells at site of allergen contact in
body (TB test is this).

Tissue Rejection
-Rejection of transplanted tissue results because recipient’s immune system recognizes
that tissue is not “self.”
-Cytotoxic T Cells respond by attacking cells of transplanted tissue.

Disorders of Immune System

-Autoimmune Disease: Cytotoxic T Cells or antibodies attack body’s own cells.
-i.e. Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
-i.e. Rheumatoid Arthritis
 Compendium Notes Aids Supplement

S.1 Origin of and Prevalence of HIV

-Origin in Africa and spread to U.S. and Europe, by way of Caribbean.
-Found in preserved 1959 blood sample from man who lived in an African country (now
called Democratic Republic of the Congo).
-Scientists speculate that immunodeficiency virus may have evlolved into HIV
during 1950’s.
-HIV might have originated in nonhuman primates, and mutated to HIV after humans ate
nonhuman primates for meat.
-Aids is a pandemic because prevalent in the entire human population around the globe.
-Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia is worst.
-Aids is leading cause of death in Caribbean.

S.2 Phases of an HIV Infection

-HIV occurs in several types
-HIV-1C prominent in Africa
-HIV-1B prominent in United States
Phases:
(1) Category A: Acute Phase
a. The antigens almost wipe out HIV
(2) Category B: Chronic Phase
a. Slow decrease of lymphocytes and increase in HIV
b. Antiviral medications (“Aids Cocktail”) tries to keep HIV in this phase
(3) Category C: AIDS
a. Opportunistic infections set in (otherwise rarely seen infections)
S.3 HIV Structure and Life Cycle

-HIV consists of two single strands of RNA, various proteins, and an envelope, which it
acquires from its host cell.
-Virus’ genetic material is protected by three protein coats: nucleocapsid, capsid, and the
matrix.
-Within the matrix are three important enzymes:
(1) Reverse transcriptase: catalyzes reverse transcription, which is the conversion
of the viral RNA to viral DNA.
(2) Integrase: Catalyzes the integration of viral DNA into the DNA of the host
cell.
(3) Protease: Catalyzes the breakdown of the newly synthesizes viral polypeptides
into functional viral proteins.

(Mader p. 349)