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1
Bohrs theory of nuclear reaction
Discovery of neutron (Chadwick, 1935), led to conduct of
many nuclear reactions with low and high energy neutrons.
It was observed that neutron absorption cross section was of
the order of R2 (R, the radius of nucleus) for neutrons with
high energies and for low energy neutrons the cross section
was higher & approaching the limiting value 2( is the de
Broglie wavelength of neutrons).
Based on these observations, N. Bohr in 1936 proposed a
mechanism for compound nuclear reaction (Bohrs
hypothesis).
a+X C* Y+b
The composite system C* formed as a result of the
absorption of the incident projectile by the target nucleus is
called compound nucleus.
Lives long enough compared to the time taken by a nucleon
of few MeV energy to travel through the nuclear diameter
(10-22s). 2
According to Bohrs theory, compound nuclear reaction is a two
stage process.
i) The formation of the compound nucleus absorbing the incident
particle by target nucleus.
ii) The disintegration of the compound nucleus into a product
nucleus and one or more emitted particles.
These two stages are independent of each other: the mode of
decay is independent of the mode of formation of compound
nucleus (Independence hypothesis).
The decay of compound nucleus depends only on the Excitation
energy (EC), total angular momentum (IC) and parity of the
compound nucleus (C), but not upon how it was formed.
This is because, Compound nucleus is a long lived entity.
3
The compound nucleus thus formed remains in a given excited
state for a certain time (mean life time, ) before decay.
The decay constant, and mean life of the compound nucleus are
related as =1/.
Since decay probability is proportional to level width of an excited
level, using uncertainty relation,
. ~
Excited levels with larger level width are poorly defined in energy.
Now compound nucleus may decay by emitting a particle b or many
particles b, b, b, b,, .
If b is the partial width of the level for the decay by the emission
of particle b, then considering the various possible types of decay,
the total width of the excited level is
=(b + b + b +.) +
The relative probabilities or branching ratios of different types of
decay are then
b= b/, b = b/, .., = /
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Based on the independence hypothesis, the cross section, (a, b)
for the process X(a, b)Y can be written as the product of the cross
section C(a, X) for the formation of the compound nucleus and the
probability of its decay b for the emission of b.
(a, b) = C(a, X) b = C(a, X) b/
This eqn assumes that the decay probability is dependent only on
the property of the compound nucleus state and is independent of
the way it was formed.
This type of decay through a single channel is possible only if the
levels are well separated and are so sharp that they do not
interfere with one another; the mean level spacing D should be
very much larger than the level width , (<<D). Then the cross
section for excitation as function of incident energy will have a
discrete structure as shown in Fig. 13.3a.
On the other hand if >>D, the cross section becomes a smoothly
varying function of energy as shown in Fig.13.3b. This consists of
many partial widths, corresponding to different types of emitted
particles (b, b, b, b..) and different energy channels.
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6
The gist of the independence hypothesis is that the cross section
for formation nucleus C(a, X) is same for all possible decay
channels (b, b, b,).
Thus for
..
If the same compound nucleus is formed in some other way, then
the decay channels should be same.
7
Ghoshal Expt
This was experimentally demonstrated by the famous experiment of
S. N. Ghoshal (1950), where he produced the same compound
nucleus 30Zn*64 with the bombardment of 28Ni60 by alpha particles
and of 29Cu63 by protons with appropriate energies to reach the
same excitation energy.
28Ni (, n)30Zn63
60
28Ni (, 2n)30Zn62
60
28Ni (, pn)29Cu62
60
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These reactions correspond to the formation of the same compound
state 30Zn*64 but, decay into different outgoing channels.
This was the first experimental evidence for the validity of Bohrs
independence hypothesis.
9
Fission, Neutron multiplication factor
and Four factor formula.
10
Nuclear Fission
11
Fission Equation
Fission of 235U by a slow (low energy) neutron
1 235 236
0 n U
92 92 U * X Y neutrons
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More About Fission of 235U
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Sequence of Events in Fission Diagram
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The Fission Process
1 235
0n 92 U
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The Fission Process
1 235
0n 92 U
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The Fission Process
1 235
0n 92 U
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The Fission Process
The neutron strikes the nucleus which then captures the neutron.
1 235
0n 92 U
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The Fission Process
236
92 U
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The Fission Process
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The Fission Process
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The Fission Process
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The Fission Process
1
0n
92
36Kr
1
0n
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Types of fission reaction
Fission reaction can be induced using different projectiles
and based on the projectile used, we have the four types of
fission reactions:
25
Energy in a Fission Process
The fission fragments have less mass than the original nuclei
26
Fissile & Fertile materials
235U, 233U and 239Pu are called fissile materials as they easily
undergo fission with thermal neutrons but 233U and 239Pu are not
available naturally and 235U forms 0.72% of the naturally
available uranium and rest is 238U.
90Th 232
0 n1
90Th 233
92U 238
0 n1
92 U 239
90Th 233
91 Pa 233
92U 239
93 Np 239
91 Pa 233
92 U 233
93 Np 239
924 Pu 239
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Neutron multiplication & Chain Reaction
Neutrons are emitted when 235U undergoes fission.
generation.
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Chain Reaction
29
Neutron multiplication factor
The neutron multiplication factor, K, is defined as the
ratio of number of neutrons in one generation to the
number of neutrons in preceding generation.
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K Values
When K = 1, the reactor is said to be critical
The chain reaction is self-sustaining.
31
Factors determining K value in reactor
A nuclear reactor is a system designed to maintain a
self-sustained chain reaction.
32
Events with one such neutron
Fast neutron before slowing down may be absorbed in 238U and
may cause fission.
Fast neutron before slowing down may be absorbed in 238U and
may not cause fission (radiative capture).
Neutron may be absorbed in moderator, coolants while slowing
down.
Slowed down & fast neutrons may be absorbed in 235U and may
cause fission of it.
Slowed down & fast neutrons may be absorbed in 235U but may
not cause fission.
Fast & slow neutrons both may escape from the reactor
assembly. This is called leakage loss.
33
Reactor Design Considerations - Neutron Leakage
34
Four factor formula for neutron multiplication
Let n be the initial thermal neutrons cause the fission with 235U.
If be the fast neutrons produced per fission, then total number
of fast neutrons produced in n fissions of 235U is n.
Among these n fast neutrons, some may produce fast fission in
235U and 238U. If is the fast fission factor, the total number of
N = n pfg
36
The infinite multiplication factor for neutrons is
N
K pfg
n
With g = , the number of fast neutrons produced for each
thermal neutron absorbed in the fuel, then K value becomes
K pf
This is known as the four factor formula for neutron multiplication
in infinite size reactor. The escape rate is proportional to r2 and
production is proportional to r3, where r is the radius of reactor
assembly.
Escape rate 1 Production rate
or Escape rate
Production rate r r
Thus larger the size of the reactor, the smaller is the escape probability.
The size of the reactor at which escape rate is negligible is called critical
size.
37
Nuclear reactor
The energy release in fission can be used for peaceful purposes
such as generation of electric power.
Fission is made use in reactors to generate power where chain
reaction is put under control & energy production is attained a
steady state.
Nuclear reactor is a device in which energy is produced at a
constant rate and it consists of the following elements.
Nuclear fuel
Moderator
Neutron reflector
Cooling system
The safety and control systems (control rods, shielding)
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Basic Reactor Design
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Pressurized Water Reactor
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Reactor constituents
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Control & Safety system- The control system is used to
control the chain reaction by absorbing all neutrons. This is
done by pushing control rods into the reactor core. The
control rods absorb neutrons. Control rods are made using
boron or cadmium as these materials have high neutron
absorption cross section.
The safety system protects the space around the reactor
against high flux of nuclear radiations (alpha, beta, gamma,
protons, neutrons, neutrinos). This is achieved by putting
massive thick walls of lead, concrete etc.
42
Pressurized Water Reactor Operation Notes
This type of reactor is
commonly used in electric
power plants.
Fission events in the reactor core
supply heat to the water
contained in the primary system
The primary system is a closed
system
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Pressurized Water Reactor Operation .contd
44
Reactor Safety Containment
45
Reactor Safety Loss of Water
46
Reactor Safety Radioactive Materials
47
Nuclear Fusion & energy production in stars
Nuclear fusion occurs when two light nuclei combine to form a
heavier nucleus.
The mass of the final nucleus is less than the masses of the original
nuclei.
This loss of mass is accompanied by a release of energy.
All stars generate energy through fusion.
The Sun, along with about 90% of other stars, fuses hydrogen
Some stars fuse heavier elements.
Two conditions must be met before fusion can occur in a star.
The temperature must be high enough.
The density of the nuclei must be high enough to ensure a high rate of
collisions.
48
Types of fusion reaction
H. A. Bethe in 1932 suggested two sets of thermonuclear reactions.
Proton-Proton cycle
49
Carbon-Carbon Cycle
6 C12
1 H 1
7 N 13
In the process, four protons are
converted into a helium and
7 N 13
6 C13
carbon.
6 C13
1 H 1
7 N 14
Nitrogen simply acts as catalyst.
7 N 14
1 H 1
8 O15
C-N cycle is predominant at very
high temperature.
8 O15
7 N 15
7 N 15
1 H 1
6 C12
2 He 4
50
Fusion Reactors
Energy releasing fusion reactions are called thermonuclear
fusion reactions
A great deal of effort is being directed at developing a
sustained and controllable thermonuclear reaction.
A thermonuclear reactor that can deliver a net power output
over a reasonable time interval is not yet a reality.
Advantages of Fusion Reactor
Inexpensive fuel source
Water is the ultimate fuel source
51
Requirements for Successful Thermonuclear Reactor
52
Few Methods of Creating Fusion Events
53