Bridge articulation and bearing

specification
Articulation is the term for the configuration of bridge supports and choice of structural
bearings that provides the necessary restraints to the superstructure whilst at the same time
providing freedom to some displacements and rotations in order to avoid unnecessary forces
on both the superstructure and substructure due to constraint.

A range of different bearing types is available. Selection of the appropriate type and
specification of the forces they must resist and displacements they must permit is a key
responsibility for the structural designer.

Clear communication of the requirements for the bearings and for their installation is
essential for proper functioning of the structure and for avoidance of unanticipated
maintenance issues.

Typical elastomeric pot bearing under a steel girder

Contents
1 Articulation
o 1.1 Single span bridges
1.1.1 Floating articulation
1.1.2 Articulation from a fixed point
o 1.2 Continuous multi-span decks
o 1.3 Curved bridge decks
2 Expansion joints
3 Bearings
 o 3.1 Elastomeric bearings
o 3.2 Pot bearings
o 3.3 Other bearing types
3.3.1 Spherical bearings
3.3.2 Rocker bearings
o 3.4 Guide bearings
4 Bearing specification
5 Bearing installation
o 5.1 Initial temperature and temperature range
6 Maintenance of bearings
7 References
8 Further reading
9 Resources
10 See also
11 External links

[top]Articulation
Bearings are used to transfer forces from the superstructure to the substructure whilst either
tolerating or constraining relative movement. The principal actions that give rise to
displacements and rotations at supports are:

Temperature change (uniform and temperature difference)

Shrinkage of concrete deck slab
Permanent actions (dead loads and superimposed dead loads)
Variable actions mainly traffic loads
o Vertical loads
o Horizontal loads
Settlement of supports
Accidental actions - vehicular collision

Movements can be either permanent (irreversible) or transient (reversible).

Generally, the structure will rotate about longitudinal and transverse axes at its supports and
these rotations must either be accommodated in the bearings or the bearings must be designed
to resist them (in which case the effects on the structure must also be considered). In some
cases, there is also a rotation about a vertical axis (associated with plan bending of the
structure) but this is usually small in magnitude.

Horizontal displacements at supports arise both from an overall change in length of the
structure and due to bending in a vertical plane (since the centroidal axes are above the levels
of the supports). Since it is necessary to resist horizontal forces at at least one position, it is
usual to do so by preventing horizontal displacement at that position; this means that
horizontal displacements at other positions are due to the expansion/contraction of the length
from the fixed bearing and to the (vectorial) sum of the movements due to bending rotation.

The following recommendations relate to the articulation arrangements for typical highway
bridges.
As bearings and expansion joints introduce a maintenance liability, it is good practice to limit
the number of bearings required and to minimise the movement to be accommodated by an
Symbols for common bearing types (from Table 1 of BS EN 1337-1[1])
Relative movements
Symbol in
Type of bearing X Y Z About About About
plan
direction direction direction X axis Y axis Z axis
Elastomeric
deforming deforming small deforming deforming deforming
bearing
Elastomeric
bearing with
deforming none small deforming deforming deforming
restraints for one
axis
very
Pot bearing none none deforming deforming deforming
small
Pot bearing with
very
unidirectional sliding none deforming deforming deforming
small
sliding

Pot bearing with

very
multidirectional sliding sliding deforming deforming sliding
small
sliding

expansion joint. Spans should be arranged so as to avoid uplift at bearing positions (it is a
very complex and costly matter to provide restraint against uplift in a bearing), particularly
when dealing with skewed structures.

The designer should avoid locking in forces that would hinder bearing replacement. Restraint
against longitudinal forces should be provided at one support, with guided restraints aligned
to allow movement at the other supports. Similarly, restraint against transverse forces should
be provided at only one bearing at each support. The construction sequence of the structure
should also be considered, to establish the permanent displacements.

The articulation scheme that the designer chooses should be shown on the drawings and will
form the basis of a bearing schedule.

The convention for illustrating the movements and constraints in bearings is given in Table 1
of BS EN 1337-1[1]. A selection of common symbols is given below.

Note: Some symbols are due to be modified in a future amendment of BS EN 1337-1[1]. The
symbols for elastomeric pot bearings will be solid black, rather than an open square and
circle.

[top]Single span bridges

[top]Floating articulation
If a bridge deck is relatively small and the associated horizontal forces are not too big, the
deck can effectively float on bearings that will each accommodate rotational and
translational displacements and will each provide part of the resistance to horizontal forces.
The bearings for this articulation arrangement will be elastomeric bearings. All horizontal
forces and movements are then accommodated by shear deformation of the bearings.

Floating bearing layout (single span on elastomeric bearings)

[top]Articulation from a fixed point

Most bridges will require some form of mechanical restraint to resist the horizontal forces
and ensure that thermal expansion and contraction occurs in the right direction. This is most
easily achieved using pot bearings.

Simple bridge bearing layout (single span on pot bearings)

The arrangement above shows the layout for a simple single span structure with skew. The
bridge deck is fixed in one corner and horizontal movements are controlled by the use of
guided (unidirectional) bearings. A free (multidirectional) bearing is provided for the
diagonally opposite corner to the fixed bearing. Longitudinal forces are taken by both the
fixed and guided bearing at the fixed end of the span. In a wider deck, it would be
preferable to locate the fixed bearing closer to the centre of the deck so as to minimise the
relative transverse movement and thus limit the movements to be accommodated by the
expansion joint.

[top]Continuous multi-span decks

For longer spans, the magnitude of the movements increases and therefore these should be
minimised by locating the fixed bearing at the centre of the bridge to ensure the thermal
expansion is split between each end of the bridge. Care should be taken to ensure that the pier
is designed for the resulting horizontal forces, particularly from braking and acceleration
actions.
Examples of bearing layouts for a 2-span bridge (on pot bearings)

On multi-span structures, care should be taken to ensure movements are not restrained,
however the use of slender piers that are able to flex may allow for load sharing between
bearings at a support location.

Further examples of bridge articulation arrangement are given in Guidance Note 1.04.

[top]Curved bridge decks

Radial alignment on a curved bridge

Curved decks can be guided either radially from a fixed point or tangentially to the radius of
curvature. If the deck is guided radially, then the accuracy of the geometry becomes critical
for the bearings furthest from the fixed point.

For structures with a constant curvature it is best to align the bearings tangentially to
effectively guide the deck around the curve as it expands and contracts. The resulting
horizontal forces are often accommodated by the use of specific guide bearings which may
not be vertical load carrying.

Tangential alignment on a curved bridge

[top]Expansion joints
Most historic bridges had no specific means of articulation between the deck and
substructure: movements would produce local cracking at the abutments. In modern bridges,
articulation arrangements, such as those described above, accommodate thermal and other
movements by selecting appropriatebearings as fixed and allowing controlled movements to
take place elsewhere. At road level, these movements are accommodated by an expansion
joint, which isolates the abutments from the displacements and maintains the integrity of the
surfacing at the end of the bridge.

The bridge designer should specify the expansion joints in a similar manner to bearings,
giving details of characteristic and design values of displacements to the joint designer.

Annex B of BS EN 1993-2[2] contains guidance for the preparation of a technical

specification for expansion joints.

By introducing bearings, and particularly by introducing expansion joints at road level, a

significant maintenance liability is created. To reduce such liability, integral construction is
often considered for short bridges. For example, BD 57[3] currently recommends that integral
construction be considered for all bridges up to 60m overall length and less than 30 skew.
This reduces, and in some cases eliminates, the need for maintenance but the designer must
still consider the movements (displacements and rotations) that are induced by traffic and
thermal actions and make appropriate allowances.

[top]Bearings
The product standard for bearings is BS EN 1337 and this is the standard referred to in the
Eurocodes. BS EN 1337 comprises 11 Parts, of which the most relevant are:

1. Part 1: General rules[1]

2. Part 2: Sliding elements[4]
3. Part 3: Elastomeric bearings[5]
 4. Part 5: Pot bearings[6]
5. Part 8: Guide bearings and restraint bearings[7]

The choice of bearing will be governed by both the values and directions of the actions and
also by the magnitude and directions of the allowed and restrained displacements. Typical
load bearing capacities (at ULS) are tabulate below.

Further guidance on the types of bearings and their usage can be found in Guidance Note
3.03.

Limited translation and rotation, and used only for very short spans and light loads

Widely used for short spans

[top]Elastomeric bearings
Elastomeric bearing

Elastomeric bearings normally consist of a number of rubber layers separated by steel plates.
These are normally laid in pads or strips and are ideally suited for small structures. They
accommodate movements by deformation. It is not normally required to fix the bearing in
place as friction between the rubber and the support surfaces will normally be adequate.

Elastomeric bearings provide an excellent economic solution for applications where structure
movements, longitudinal, transverse and rotational are small. They provide vibration isolation
and are generally simple to install. Elastomeric bearings are relatively maintenance free but
will degrade over time and require replacement.

Larger movements require taller bearings and possibly additional mechanical means of
preventing the bridge deck from effectively floating from the desired position. When used on
steel bridges, elastomeric bearings can be positively located using perimeter keep strips
welded to the underside of the bottom girder flange.

[top]Pot bearings

The elastomeric pot bearing consists of a confined disk of elastomer within a short cylinder
(the pot). Loading is then applied via a close fitting steel piston. This puts the elastomer
under high pressure, making it behave like a liquid, permitting rotation in any direction with
very little resistance.

A sliding surface can be included to accommodate translational movement, which can be in

any direction or constrained by guides. The rotations and the translations, as well as the loads
carried, can be greater than for elastomeric bearings.
Elastomeric pot bearing with multi-directional sliding part

[top]Other bearing types

[top]Spherical bearings

Spherical bearings are used to accommodate large rotations by the use of a lower spherical
surface. This is normally lined with dimpled PTFE and matched to an upper stainless steel
surface. These types of bearings are more expensive than pot bearings due to the increased
machining and would only be used on major structures, to accommodate increased deck
rotations. Generally, these bearings require a minimum co-existent vertical load to prevent
instability.

Spherical bearings

Plain spherical bearing

Spherical bearing with sliding guided element

[top]Rocker bearings

Line rocker bearing

These bearings allow rotation about a single axis (usually transverse to the girder). The
advantage of these bearings is that torsional restraint is provided about the axis orthogonal to
the line of contact and therefore can be useful in U frame bridges. They are often used when
impact loading is high, such as on railway bridges.

[top]Guide bearings

As the name suggests, these bearings are used to ensure the structure maintains the correct
location or expansion/contraction path and take no vertical load. These types of bearings are
occasionally used on heavily skewed or multispan structures.
Guide bearing

[top]Bearing specification
It is the bridge designers responsibility to prepare the bearing schedule. The schedule should
contain the following information:

A list of forces on the bearings from each action

A list of movements of the bearings from each action
Other performance characteristics of the bearings

The bearing designer (normally the manufacturer) will then use this information to determine
the design values and therefore the full specification. There are currently two alternative
templates given for the bearing schedule, one is given in Table A.3 of Annex A of BS EN
1993-2[2] and the other in Table B.1 Annex B of BS EN 1337-1[1].

Table A.3 of BS EN 1993-2[2] requires the designer to give characteristic values due to the
separate actions, which then need to have partial and combination factors applied to them to
give the design value for the bearings. Generally, the bearing designer will be unaware of the
relevant design combinations and will thus not be able to determine design values for the
bearings from these characteristic values.

Table B.1 of BS EN 1337-1[1] simply expects the designer to give the relevant design values
of loads (forces on the bearings ) and displacements. This schedule also requires reference
data, maximum dimensions and fixing details to be indicated. This is more informative for
the bearing designer but still does not give the full range of coexisting combination of forces
and displacements for each bearing. (This deficiency will be addressed in the planned
Amendment to BS EN 1337-1[1], which will give new schedule tables.)

Bearing schedule (as in Table B.1 of BS EN 1337-1)[1]

The designer must be aware of the difference between the two schedules and ensure that
adequate information is supplied to the bearing supplier. It is also important, for correct
installation, that the orientation of the bearing is clear; see advice in Guidance Note 2.09.

It is important to note that, for steel bridges, the bearings are normally installed before
completion of the bridge deck and therefore bearings will have to accommodate additional
thermal displacements and also movements due to construction activities. A common
situation that must be considered is rotation due to pre-camber and the drop-out during
construction, particularly in heavily skewed structures where may be large transverse
rotations at the supports. These rotations are a function of the plan geometry and are related
to the magnitude of the dead load effects and the pre-camber provided, they cannot be
avoided.
[top]Bearing installation
Bearings are normally bolted to the girders above and the substructure below to allow
replacement. Normally the bearing surface is set to be horizontal and therefore taper plates
are normally required to follow the geometry of the steelwork above. These taper plates
should be designed along with the main girders, taking into account the final geometry of the
bridge post camber. The bearings are normally bolted through the girder bottom flange
though difficulties do arise with thick flanges and moderate to large gradients since it is only
feasible to drill square to the flange surface. A common solution to this problem is to use
tapped holes in the taper plate, which is then welded to the underside of the girder; when
using this detail, the horizontal forces on the bearing need to be minimised. Refer to
Guidance Note 2.08 for more information.

Skew ladder deck being lowered onto an elastomeric pot bearing

(Image courtesy of Arup)

Attachment of bearing by bolting through girder flange

[top]Initial temperature and temperature range

An estimate for the initial installation temperature for the installation of the bearing should be
given by the designer to the constructor enable the bearing to be set correctly prior to
installation, in order to allow the full expansion and contraction displacements to be
accommodated. This is not explicitly stated in Annex B of BS EN 1337-1[1] but is stated in
Annex A of BS EN 1993-2[2]. Some guidance for this installation temperature and the
associated temperature range is found in the Eurocodes but there remains some potential
confusion. The following is an attempt to guide the designer through the relevant parts of the
Eurocodes relating specifically to bearings and expansion joints as the onus is on the designer
to specify the range of displacement at the ultimate limit state.

An initial bridge Temperature T0 is given in the National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-5[8], clause

NA.2.21 states that "In the absence of specific provisions to control the temperature at which
a bridge is restrained, the initial temperature T0 should be taken as 0C for expansion and
20C for contraction." This would then be taken in conjunction with BS EN 1991-1-5[9]
clause 6.1.3.3 (3) Note 2 for bearings which adds 20C to both the expansion and contraction
range of the uniform temperature component if no further information is available. This may
be reduced to an additional 10C if an initial installation temperature is specified. However,
clause NA.2.6 of the National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-5[8] then points the designer to BS EN
1993-2[2].

Annex A of BS EN 1993-2[2] requires a reference T0 to be calculated as above. The

uncertainty of the position of a sliding bearing at installation should be accounted for by
adding T0 as described in Table A.4. The design value for temperature difference is then
determined by adding T0 to TK and including a safety term Ty, which is given as 5C.

It is sensible to give the assumed installation temperature, so as to reduce the temperature

range of the bearings a value should be selected to be such that the temperature expansion
and temperature contraction are similar (i.e. in the middle of the range), a value for T0 of
10C would be reasonable.

Using this installation temperature T0 of 10C as the reference temperature will give similar
but not identical results for both methods. As the designer should use the temperature ranges
given to estimate the maximum reversible displacements, there is scope for conservatism here
without undue cost.

Verification of the initial installation temperature on site will need to be made in accordance
with BS EN 1337-11[10].

Further guidance on how designers should calculate the movement range to be specified for
bridge bearings, taking account of both thermal change and uncertainty in the relative
positioning of bearings on the sub- and superstructures, is available in SCI P406.

[top]Maintenance of bearings
Abutment gallery for a composite bridge