Contents

Introduction Palestine 198

Guidelines for study The Second World War and the creation of the
Chapter 1 State of Israel 209
The French Revolution and Napoleon 1 Atatrk and the Turkish Republic 217
David Smith Iran and Reza Khan, 192441 229
Origins: challenges posed and unmet 1 Saudi Arabia 239
France under Napoleon 39 Chapter 5
The Napoleonic Wars 43 The Second World War and Western Europe 244
The Congress of Vienna 59 Richard Jones-Nerzic and David Keys
Chapter 2 The Second World War in Europe 244
German and Italian unification 65 Post-war Europe 259
David Smith Post-war Spain, 194553 267
Nations, nation-states and nationalism 65 Rebuilding Europe 273
The unification of Italy 83 Germany, 195069 277
The unification of Germany 94 Spain, 195375 282
Austria in the 19th century 117 Unifying Europe 289
Chapter 3 Chapter 6
Western and Northern Europe, 18481914 120 Post-war developments in the
David Smith Middle East, 19452000 314
France, 1848 120 Mariam Habibi
Napoleon III and the Second Empire 128 Egypt 314
The Third Republic 141 Arab unity 336
The United Kingdom, 18671900 150 The Arab world and Israel 343
The United Kingdom, 190014 165 Lebanon 356
Chapter 4 Iran, 194179 363
War and change in the Middle East, 191449 171 Chapter 7
Mariam Habibi Social and economic developments in
Introducing the Middle East 171 Europe and the Middle East 376
The First World War in the Middle East 175 Peyman Jafari and David Smith
The peace settlements 187 Case study: United Kingdom, 19452000 377
The mandate system 190 Case study: Iran, 19532000 403

Authors
Mariam Habibi is Assistant Professor with the
American Graduate School of International Relations
and Diplomacy, based in Paris. She is a workshop
leader for InThinking, IB Teacher Workshops.
Peyman Jafari is a researcher at the International
Institute of Social History in Amsterdam, and is
currently a Phd candidate in the University of
Amsterdam, Faculty of Social and Behavioural
Science.
Richard Jones-Nerzic teaches History at the
European School Brussels and runs the website
www.internationalschoolhistory.net. He previously
taught IB History in France and Slovakia. He is
co-ordinator of the European History e-Learning
Project (e-Help).
David Keys teaches IB History at the British
International School, Bratislava, Slovakia. He has
taught History and English in Turkey, Saudi Arabia
and the UK and is a translator and writer.
David Smith teaches at the Ecole Lindsay Thurber
Comprehensive High School in Alberta, Canada.
He is a workshop leader for IB Americas, an
examiner, application reader and a faculty member
for the Online Curriculum Centre.
L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L

6 Post-war developments in the

Middle East, 19452000
This section deals with the impact of nationalism, communalism,
modernization and westernization on some of the countries of the
Middle East. Though the Middle East was not directly involved
in the battles of the Second World War, it nonetheless witnessed
major changes in its aftermath. Europes decline boosted nationalist
movements, introducing major political, economic and social
changes. In turn, Europe was replaced by the United States as a
dominant influence on international relations in the region.
Domestically it led to reforms that brought the countries closer to the
Western model, both socially and economically. In some cases these
had long term repercussions. The chapter will concentrate on these
changes and evaluate their long-term effects with a focus on Egypt
and Iran. It will also cover the ArabIsraeli conflict and consider the
attempts at peacemaking.

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

L discuss Nassers rise to power in Egypt
L analyse the success and failure of the reforms of Nasser and Sadat in
Egypt, and compare their foreign policies
L assess the degree of change and continuity under the presidency of
Mubarak
L define the impact of Pan Arabism, the Arab League and Pan Islamism
in the region
L consider the causes of the ongoing conflict between Israel and the
Arab world
L evaluate the success of the peace talks between Israel and the
Arab world
L recognize the forces that divided Lebanon and caused its civil war
L assess Irans path to modernization and its long-term consequences
L understand the causes of the revolution in Iran in 1979.

Egypt

Modern Egypt emerged in 1952 when a military coup, better known

today as the Egyptian Revolution, brought down the monarch, King
Farouk, and put in office a military regime. The new rulers rallying
around a strong sentiment of nationalism, succeeded in introducing
a series of reforms to modernize Egypt. Furthermore, they challenged
the West and affirmed Egypts independence on the international
scene. The man whose name is closely associated with these changes
314 is Gamal Abdel Nasser, the son of a postman, who, at the apex of his
career, was elevated to the status of hero and hailed as the unifier of
 6 LPost-war developments in the Middle East, 19452000

the Arab world. He was, according to historian William Cleveland,

the embodiment of what the Arab world wanted to be: assertive,
independent and engaged in the construction of a new society freed
from the imperial past and oriented towards a bright Arab future.
This section will give an account of the circumstances that allowed
A protectorate is an independent state
Nasser to come to power.
that is provided with administrative,
Egypt, the most populated of all the Arab countries in the Middle diplomatic and military support by a
East stands on the crossroads of Asia and Africa. Through the Suez stronger state or entity. The protectorate
Canal, a man-made waterway built in 1869, it links the Mediterranean usually accepts specied obligations, but
to the Red Sea. This continues to be the major naval route between retains its sovereignty.
Europe and Asia. Egypt had been part of the Ottoman Empire but
was controlled by Britain. In 1914 it became a British protectorate.
In the post-war period a nationalist uprising, inspired by the Wafd The Wafd (meaning delegation) was
Party, sought independence from the United Kingdom. The British the name of a nationalist party led by
arrested Zaghlul its leader and exiled him to Malta. The arrest incited Saad Zaghlul after the First World War.
further anger and in 1919 anti-British riots became widespread The party stopped functioning in 1952,
throughout the country. The nationalist revolt led to the cancellation but was revived as the New Wafd Party
of the protectorate in 1922 and Egypt became an independent state, in 1983.
with King Fuad on its throne. In 1923 a constitution was drawn up
and following the first parliamentary elections in January 1924,
Zaghlul became Egypts first elected prime minister. The British, ty:
however, continued to interfere in Egyptian politics. In 1936 Activi
following the death of King Fuad and his succession by King Farouk Saad Zaghlu
certain changes were introduced. The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was Research the career of Saad
signed which offered Egypt more independence, but the UK Zaghlu, who formed the first
maintained a military presence in the Suez Canal zone and had Wafdist government in 1924.
the right to defend Egypt in case of attack. The occasion for What were his goals and aims?
interference was to come in the course of the Second World War How did he attempt to achieve
in1942. The humiliation that the Egyptians experienced on that these aims? To what extent
occasion, known as the 4th of February incident was one of the was he successful?
factors that brought Nasser to power.
When war was declared in 1939 Egypt declared its neutrality and
had every intention of staying out of the conflict. On 13 September
1940, when Italian troops crossed the Libyan border into Egypt, this
proved to be impossible and Alexandria came under heavy attack.
Economically, the country also suffered as its trade was disrupted by
war-time conditions. There were severe food shortages, which caused
bread riots in Cairo. The Egyptian political elites position towards the
Allied forces was a little ambivalent. Given their history of domination
by the British, some saw the war as an opportunity to close ranks with
the UKs enemies. Fearing such an eventuality, the British took the
upper hand and forced the King to appoint a member of the more
reliable Wafd Party as prime minister. This happened on the 4th of
February 1942. The ultimatum, which left the King with the choice
of either following British orders or abdicating, was humiliating
for Egypt. The consequences of the incident were far-reaching. Discussion point:
It undermined Egypts sovereignty and discredited the monarchy Credibility (the ability to elicit
and the Parliament. For the Wafd party, the 4th of February incident belief) is a vital quality for a
was political suicide. The party lost all credibility with the Egyptians politician. What are the factors
as they were seen to be too co-operative with a foreign power that enhance credibility in a
and therefore stopped being a nationalist alternative in Egyptian political leader or a politician?
post-war politics. 315
 6 L Post-war developments in the Middle East, 19452000

When the war ended, relations between Egypt and the United
Kingdom remained tense. The Egyptians wanted the UK to
renegotiate the 1936 treaty and evacuate its troops from the Suez
Canal zone, but the British refused. The political situation was
unstable as both the King and the ruling Wafd Party were regarded
as compromised and weak in relation to the UK, so neither inspired
much loyalty. The Suez Canal was one of the major bones of
contention between Egypt and the UK. It is not surprising that it
came to blows in 1956 with a war between the two countries.
The Suez Canal Company was originally owned by the French, who
had been responsible for its construction. It was then taken over by
the Egyptians in 1863, during the reign of Ismail Pasha, for a sum of
3,800,000. But in 1875, faced with a major financial crisis due to a
drop in the demand for Egyptian cotton in the world market, Egypt
was forced to sell its shares to the British government. Furthermore,
the British government secured its investment by maintaining a
British force in the canal zone. The presence of British troops on
Egyptian soil angered many Egyptians and the Egyptian government
asked the British to leave on many occasions. In 1936 the Anglo-
Egyptian Treaty, which affirmed Egypts sovereignty, nonetheless
stipulated Britains hold on the canal zone. Stationed in the area to
protect it were 10,000 British troops. In 1951, when the government
finally chose to abrogate the treaty and force the British out, there
were violent clashes. The British troops remained in the area
until 1956.
Another factor contributing to rising discontent was the economic
situation of Egypt, and the growing gap between the rich and the
poor. As a country in which the economy was mainly based on food
production, this gap was particularly apparent amongst landowners.
There was a massive inequality in land distribution and in the size of
the holdings: 0.4 per cent of the landowners were in possession of
35 per cent of the countrys cultivable land, while 94 per cent of the Discussion point:
population owned 35 per cent of the land. The size of the holdings Land is an important source of
varied from 200 feddans or more (an Egyptian unit of area equivalent wealth in many countries. What
to 1.038 acres or 0.42 hectares) to 0.8 feddan. Given that many of the other sources of wealth can you
landowners were in fact the ruling politicians, no real attempts were think of? Does the source of
made to change the situation and consequently the politicians wealth define the type of country?
became the target of the anger of the poor.
Finally, the humiliating defeat of the 19489 ArabIsraeli War
(see chapter 4, p. 2136) increased the unpopularity of King Farouk.
The war convinced the younger officers of the incompetence of
the men ruling Egypt. Two opposition groups emerged. The first were
the Muslim Brothers, a Pan-Islamic group which had been formed Pan-Islamism is a political movement
in 1928 by Hassan al Banna. This was a movement which proposed a advocating the unity of Muslims under
return to Islamic values as a means of uniting Muslims in the Arab one Islamic state.
world against the intrusion of foreign powers. The other were the
Free Officers, a group of junior military officers formed immediately
after the 19489 war, who proposed a national revival to recoup
Egypts lost pride through the overthrow of the monarchy. They were
motivated by the desire to rid Egypt of British imperialism and bring
316 about social justice reforms that would combat social inequality.
 6 LEgypt

In 1951 the Wafd government,

faced with growing opposition, Gamal Abdel Nasser (19181970)
announced the unilateral Gamal Abdel Nasser was born in Alexandria, where
abrogation of the 1936 treaty as a his father had a job as a postal worker. As a young
way to gain some popularity. student he participated in many of the anti-British
The British once again refused to demonstrations of the 1930s. In 1937, a year after
negotiate. The matter had become the Anglo-Egyptian treaty, he enrolled in the Military
a question of national pride and Academy in Cairo. Fighting in the 1948 War against
the refusal led to clashes between Israel, he had a first-hand experience of the humiliation
the Egyptian people and the of defeat. He blamed King Farouk and the political elite for
British forces stationed in the Egypts humiliation.
canal zone, killing and wounding Nasser was popular among ordinary people because of his social
hundreds of protestors. On 26 background. He spoke vernacular Arabic, which was easily understood.
January 1952, a day known as He was also admired for his courage and charisma. During the period of
his presidency he succeeded in highlighting Egypts role as a pioneer in
Black Saturday, Cairo exploded
the Arab world. To the outside world Nassers Egypt could no longer be
in anger: demonstrators took to
ignored. He also introduced important socio- economic reforms within
the city centre burning banks, the country which left an indelible imprint on Egypt. His premature death
cinemas, bars. This was the last at the age of 52 was mourned by the majority of Egyptians.
straw that broke the camels back.
On the night of 2223 July 1952
ty:
the army headquarters, the Activi
airport and communication
Essay skills: Causation
centres were seized by the Free Discuss the long-term and the short-term causes for the rise of Nasser to power.
Officers and in a relatively For a historian, events are agents that bring about other events, often in
bloodless coup (two soldiers reaction to what has gone on before. This is what we call causation.
were killed and seven Some of these events have consequences that take a long time to
wounded), King Farouks mature; others trigger a reaction straight away. The first category we call
government was replaced with long-term causes and the second become short-term causes.
the Revolutionary Command To respond to the essay question, you need to select events that fit both
Council (RCC). The King was categories, and to decide on whether they had a short-term (S) or long-
sent into exile, where he term (L) impact. Fill out the table below with 46 events. Once the
remained until his death in table is completed, you have all the evidence you need to construct a
clear analytical essay. Make sure that your justifications are logical.
1965. In June 1953 the
monarchy was abolished, the
Event When did it happen? What did it lead to? L/S?
1923 constitution was
withdrawn, political parties
were banned and though Egypt
was proclaimed a Republic, the
RCC obtained the right to rule for a transition period of three
years. The RCC also prohibited all those who had held political Discussion point:
posts in 194652 from entering politics again. Under the new Many governments in the
regime, Mohammad Naghib became President, with Nasser in the Middle East emerged out of a
post of Vice-President. In February 1954, disagreement between military coup d' tat. What do
Nasser and Naghib led to the resignation of the latter. With his you think gives the armed
main rival out of the way, Gamal Abdel Nasser started to construct forces the legitimacy to govern?
his Nasserist state.

The Nasserist state

In contrast to the weak government and lack of leadership shown
by its former monarch, the new regime led by the military and the
Free Officers demonstrated its well-honed organizational skills,
317
military discipline and authority. The military rulers represented
 6 L Post-war developments in the Middle East, 19452000

the nation as a whole. The members of the new government ty:

represented the ordinary people and not just the privileged Activi
landowners. Nasser himself, originating from the rural poor,
Class debate
symbolized the new Egypt: one that would take into consideration Political parties are divisive
the under-privileged. He spoke their language and understood their vs. Political parties are
plight. In a speech made in April 1954 he said: The Egyptian necessary.
masses were too weak to start a revolutionary action to improve Consider the following
their lot, so we your brothers started it for you, but you are the statement:
revolution. The new regime claimed to be the guardian of the The Premier and his colleagues
peoples interests. on the Revolution Command
Council are convinced that
The new regime was a populist regime, which means that they restoration of the freedom of
claimed to represent the people. It was also a one-party system. political parties to contest
As representatives of the people, other parties were no longer elections would produce a
needed. Political parties are divisive and this regime wanted to parliament in which special
introduce a new model that reflected co-operation rather than interests could buy
conflict in society: Egypt would be a co-operative state. representation, and would
Nasser justified this position in a statement quoted in the neglect the well-being of the
New York Times, in 1955: We see no advantage for Egypt in the Egyptian masses.
establishment of a parliament in which men serving the interests Source: Nasser quoted in the
New York Times. 19 May 1955.
of big landlords, or of Iraq, London, Washington or Moscow,
would sit masquerading as Egyptians. In January 1953 the RCC
formed the National Liberation Rally as the only political organ
that represented the people. Nasser was its Secretary-General.
This organization was to form a bridge between the people and
the revolution.
In 1956 the end of the three-year transition was announced and a
new constitution was drawn up, without however permitting any
other political parties. In 1957 the Liberation Rally was replaced by
the National Union. The National Unions role was to supervise
and guide the people. In 1962, this body was replaced with the
Arab Socialist Union (ASU), another name for the single party that
continued to be the sole body representing the people of Egypt.
Even though Egypt only had one political party, elections did take
place. Candidates were chosen and closely screened by the
ruling party. The National Charter became the
platform for action of the Arab Socialist
The new regime justified its seizure of power by the fact that they
Union (ASU). Its agenda included:
would redistribute the wealth of the country, modernize Egypt
1 a programme of nationalization in
and bring social justice to the country. One of the regimes most
which banks, insurance companies,
ambitious objectives was an extensive agrarian reform, introduced
shipping companies and major
in 1952. For Nasser this transformed the military coup into a
heavy industries all passed from
revolution. A decade later, in 1962, with the launching of the
private hands to the state
Arab Socialist Union, Nassers revolutionary policies, which he
2 agrarian reform, which reduced the
named the National Charter, spread to the rest of society.
maximum holdings from 200 to 100
When presenting the Charter, Nasser explained his policies in the
feddans
following way: Revolution is the way in which the Arab nation
3 90 per cent income tax imposed on
can free itself of its shackles, and rid itself of the dark heritage
income over 10,000 Egyptian pounds
which has burdened it [it] is the only way to overcome
4 workers being represented on
underdevelopment which has been forced on it by suppression
management boards
and exploitation. The Free Officers had taken the law in their
5 workers and peasants being
hands because the legal government had been the source of
guaranteed at least 50 per cent of
318 humiliation for Egypt. Their discourse was a nationalistic one and
the seats in parliament.
stood in opposition to foreign domination. For Nasser, nationalism
 6 LEgypt

was synonymous with revolution because it was ty:

only through independence that Egypt could bring Activi
social justice to Egypt: We must fight imperialism, The National Charter
monarchy and feudalism because we are opposed Read the agenda of the National Charter on
to injustice, oppression and slavery. page 318, and answer the following questions:
1 Who was the National Charter designed to
One of the trade-marks of Nasserist Egypt was
appeal to?
the notion of Arab Socialism. This identified with
2 Which groups in society would feel threatened
a state-run centralized planned economy, a series
by it?
of welfare measures and the will to export these
ideas to other Arab states. The mission set forth 3 What were the implications of these divided
opinions for the future of the Nasserist regime?
by the new regime went beyond the borders of
Egypt. Nasser insisted on uniting the Arab world
and he cultivated a sense of communalism as well
as nationalism. His objective was to restore the pride and
confidence of the Arabs and through this unite them against
the external forces. The 1956 constitution, for example, stated
that Egypt was an Arab country and part of the Arab nation.
This emphasis was a reminder that Egypt planned to lead the
other Arab states in this quest. Nasser referred to the outcome of
the Suez Crisis in 1956 as the Great Arab victory (see p. 337), its
momentum going beyond Egypts borders. In 1958 Egypt entered
into a union with Syria and Nasser announced the birth of the
United Arab Republic.
Opposition such as the Muslim Brotherhood and the Communist
Party were severely repressed. In 1954 after an assassination
attempt on Nasser by a member of the Muslim Brothers, six of its
leaders were executed and thousands of its members imprisoned.
The Communist Party received a similar treatment. After a major
strike in the textile factory near Alexandria, said to have been
instigated by the Communist
Party of Egypt, the army was
ty:
called in to crush the strike. Activi
Two of the workers were Essay skills: Compare and contrast
executed and many more Very often in the exams you will be asked to compare and contrast two
received prison sentences. Later, single-party rulers. It is advisable to tackle such a question thematically.
in 1957 an intelligence service, Use the list of headings below to write up a comparative analysis of
the Mukhaberat, was set up and Nasser and one other single-party ruler from the 20th century.
its job was to keep a strict watch
on the people. Having come to Singleparty rule Nasser Another ruler
power in a conspiratorial Conditions that brought the leader to power
manner, the new regime was Cult of personality
fully aware of the dangers of
Nature of the government
conspiracy. According to the
Domestic policies
historian Mary Ann Fay, Nasser
had once admitted that he Foreign policies
tended to see a conspiracy in Status of women
everything. Consequently, his Treatment of the opposition
regime was extremely vigilant Treatment of minorities
and condemned any form of
Role of education
opposition. The press, now
Propaganda
under state control, was subject
to strict censorship. 319
 6 L Post-war developments in the Middle East, 19452000

An important feature of Nassers

regime was his cult as a leader.
Even though Nasser had risen from the
ranks of the army, he distinguished
himself from them so that if the
military had any setbacks it would leave
his reputation intact. As a leader, he
was always present, personifying the
nation and the regime, and insisting on
absolute loyalty. What Nasser said in
October 1954 immediately after a
member of the Muslim Brotherhood
shot eight bullets in his direction, but
missed, is one example of this
relationship. If Abdel Nasser dies ...
each of you is Gamal Abdel Nasser ...
Gamal Abdel Nasser is of you and from
you and he is willing to sacrifice his life
Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser standing at the window of his train as it enters
for the nation. the station in Cairo on 29 October 1954 is greeted by the crowd. He is
returning from Alexandria where he had been the victim of an assassination
Nasserist Egypts foreign relations attempt by Mahmood Abdel Latif, a member of the Muslim Brothers.
Within a few years of Nassers accession
to power, Egypt became the scene of a war with the United
Kingdom, France and the State of Israel. The Suez War, as it came My countrymen, my blood spills
to be known, had a major impact on Egypts relations with the for you and for Egypt. I will live
world. It: for your sake, die for the sake of
L created a distance between Egypt and the Western Allies your freedom and honor. Let them
L improved Egypts relations with the communist world kill me; it does not concern me
L elevated Egypt to a leadership role in the Arab world so long as I have instilled pride,
L became one of the causes for the outbreak of the 1967 honor and freedom in you.
ArabIsraeli War. If Gamal Abdel Nasser should
die, each of you shall be Gamal
Though Nasser had made it clear that his aim was to reduce foreign Abdel Nasser.
interference in Egypt, he did not at first choose to turn his back on
Gamal Abdel Nasser, after an attempt on
the West. On the contrary, to finance the Aswan Dam project and his life in 1954.
to improve Egypts outmoded military equipment he first turned
to the West. But the loan that was offered by the World Bank
stipulated that its officials supervise Egypts budget. Another
request, this time for military equipment, was simply refused.
The Bandung Conference was a
On learning this, Nasser was forced to seek out other alternatives.
meeting of Asian and African states,
Starting out, in April 1955, he became one of the founding
most of which were newly independent,
members of the non-aligned movement, following the Bandung
which took place 1824 April 1955 in
Conference. In September of the same year, he announced an
Indonesia. The aim of the conference
arms deal with Czechoslovakia. He would receive Soviet military
was to promote Afro-Asian economic
equipment via Czechoslovakia in exchange for Egyptian cotton.
and cultural co-operation. It took a
In May 1956 Egypt recognized Communist China. In this move, he
strong position against all forms of
went against the Western Alliances containment policy requiring
foreign intervention in the internal
friendly nations to refrain from recognizing Maos China. And, in
affairs of independent countries .
a final bold step, in June 1956, Nasser accepted the Soviet Unions
As the Western Imperial nations
offer of a loan for the construction of the Aswan Dam. In July, the
including the United States were
US State Department announced that financial help to Egypt
implicated, the meeting was not viewed
was no longer feasible. To pursue the Aswan Dam project, Nasser
320 very favourably by the Western Allies.
nationalized the Suez Canal.
 6 LEgypt

The Suez crisis and the 1956 War

We need to understand the ensuing Suez crisis in the context of
the Cold War. From the 1950s the cold war had entered a new
phase: in order to avoid physical confrontation each side chose
the system of alliances. Alliance with the Western camp included
generous US military and economic aid. The division of the world
into the EastWest contending spheres of influence manifested
itself in the signing of pacts. The Central Treaty Organization
otherwise known as the Baghdad Pact, signed in 1955 between
Britain, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and Iraq, aimed to bring these
countries that were situated on the Soviet Unions southern
borders into the Western sphere of influence and thus contain
the spread of communism. The British government attempted
to force Egypt to join the alliance.
The new Egyptian government had promised to restore Egypts
sovereignty over the Suez Canal, which according to the 1936
treaty was still under the control of the British government.
The British refused to discuss the evacuation of the Suez Canal
base until Egypt agreed to join the Baghdad Pact. But the Egyptians
would only start discussing the matter when the British agreed
to leave. In October 1954 the UK agreed to sign an agreement
promising to withdraw their troops from the base within 20 months.
They added the provision, however, that the British base could be
reactivated in the event of an attack on Egypt or Turkey by an
outside power or an Arab League state. In February 1955 the
British Foreign Minister, Anthony Eden, visited Cairo seeking
again to persuade Nasser to join the Baghdad Pact. Nasser once
again refused. Furthermore, since Nasser was more attracted by
the non-aligned pact he also encouraged other Arab states to refuse
the Baghdad Pact. He was successful in convincing both Syria and
Jordan to decline membership in the Baghdad Pact.
Discussion point:
By April 1956 the UK had withdrawn their troops from the canal
Who was the rightful owner
zone. The canal was nonetheless still owned by the British Suez
of the Suez Canal?
Canal Company. On 26 July 1956, immediately after the
announcement by the United States that a loan would not be The facts:
forthcoming, Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez L The United Kingdom and
France had built the canal.
Canal. Though he was prepared to pay compensation to the owners,
he justified this act by stating that he would thereafter use the L The UK had bought out
income from the canal to finance projects such as the Aswan Dam Francess shares in
project. Nasser was asserting Egypts rights over what he considered to ownership.
be Egyptian property. The UK viewed the matter differently and started L The canal is situated in Egypt.
devising a plan to overturn Nassers decision.
A secret agreement was reached between Israel, France and the UK.
This is the reason the war is remembered in the Arab world as the
Tripartite Aggression. The Israelis refer to it as the Sinai War.
This plan consisted of an Israeli attack on Sinai with the objective
of reaching the east bank of the canal. This took place on 29 October
1956, and would be followed by a British and a French ultimatum
asking both Egypt and Israel to retreat from the canal zone in order
to avoid conflict and ensure safe passage for navigation. As Israel would
agree and Egypt could only refuse (according to the plan) the British air 321
force would carry out an air raid. This event took place on 31 October.
 6 L Post-war developments in the Middle East, 19452000

The last act of aggression in this

The Sinai Campaign: OctoberNovember 1956
well thought-out plan was the
Israel 194867 Israeli parachute-landing troops Jerusalem
landing of French and British

Dead Sea
Principle Israeli advances 29 October 5 November 1956
paratroopers on Port Said on
British and French landings in Port Said Gaza
5 November.
Port Said Mediterranean Sea
Port Fuad
Although everything had gone Rafah
El Arish
according to plan, the attack
was halted at midnight on ISRAEL

Suez Canal
Kantara
6 November, and was Abu Aweigila
Negev
immediately condemned by both EGYPT
Bir Gafgafa Kusselma
the United States and the Soviet
Union. President Eisenhower was Ismailia Bir Hasana
so furious that he was ready to
sell the US governments Sterling JORDAN

Bond holdings, which would Suez Milta Pass Kalat en-Nakhel

have forced the devaluation of
the British currency. He also led Ras Sudr
El Tamad Eilat
the UN General Assembly to
Aqaba
demand an immediate end to the
SINAI
offensive. France and Britain
agreed to a UN sponsored cease-
fire. The UK and France Abu Zeneima
Gu

ba
withdrew their troops in SAUDI
lf o

f Aqa
ARABIA
fS

December and Israeli forces

ue

evacuated the region by March

Gulf o
z

Dahab
1957. The UN sent its troops to
the Sinai as a peacekeeping force.
In April 1957 the Suez Canal Tor
Nabek
re-opened for international Tiran
commerce.
Sharm el-Sheikh
Though Egypt had undergone a
military defeat, Nasser was not
overthrown as the three belligerent countries had hoped. Instead
the crisis turned into a political triumph for Nasser. Egypt retained
its newly acquired rights over the Suez Canal and Nasser was hailed
as a hero in the Arab world. According to William Cleveland, No
other Arab leader approached his status and no other Arab leader
aroused such high expectations.
The British and the French had been humiliated on the international
scene. Suez was indeed a watershed in terms of the decline of the
UKs role in the Middle East. As the former CIA official Chester L.
Cooper put it, Suez turned out to be the lions last roar. According
to Avi Shlaim, Suez was the turning point: the European phase in
the history of the Middle East gave way to the superpower phase.
The repercussions for the British and the French inside Egypt were
even worse; their nationals were expelled and their property seized.
The Egyptian Jews were also either expelled or chose to leave.
The Suez Crisis brought Egypt and the Soviet Union closer together.
In 1958 the Soviet Union finalized its offer of a loan for the construction
of the Aswan Dam. They also increased their military aid. Ideologically,
322 Egypt remained neutral. According to Nasser, Egypts foreign policy
 6 LEgypt

was an example of positive neutralism: it did not enter into conflict

with either of the superpowers. It can, however, be argued that the
1967 War against Israel found its long-term roots in the Suez Crisis.
Nassers popularity and status as a champion of the Arab world led to
some unwise and hasty moves. This included the short-lived United
Arab Republic and the intervention in Yemens civil war. Both these
themes will be covered in the section on Arab Unity.

The 1967 War or the Six Day War

The mid 1960s had witnessed growing tension on Israels borders
with Jordan and Syria. The Israelis complained of guerrilla raids
and retaliated. In 1967 the tone became more hostile and the Israeli
Prime Minister, Levi Eshkol, warned that Damascus could be
occupied if the raids were not controlled. Nasser saw this as an
opportunity to revive the heroic days of 1956 and improve his
tarnished reputation. He therefore called on the UN peacekeeping
forces (present since the 1956 War) to leave the Sinai. Once they
left, on 16 May, he announced that he would be closing the Tiran
Straits, which connects the Gulf of Aqaba to the Red Sea and is vital
to Israeli shipping. For Israel this constituted a declaration of war,
a casus belli. On 5 June, Israel launched a full-scale pre-emptive Casus belli is a Latin expression
attack on Egypt, Syria and Jordan. Within a few hours the Israeli meaning the justication for acts of
air force had destroyed 90 per cent of the Egyptian air force, about war. Casus means case or incident,
70 per cent of the Syrian air force and almost all of the Jordanian and also rupture, while belli means
air force. By 8 June the Israeli ground force had crossed the Sinai of war.
and reached the Suez Canal. Within six days the Arab defeat was
total. Israel now held the City of Jerusalem, the West Bank,
the Gaza strip, the Sinai Peninsula and parts of the Golan Heights.
The 250,000 Palestinians living on the West Bank were forced to
flee to the East Bank.
The military defeat of 1967 was a tragic reminder of the defeat in
Democracy is not dened by the
1948 and a major setback for Nasser. In the eyes of the Egyptians,
constitution and the parliament,
those who had promised to restore Egypts national pride had
but is created by eliminating
brought her further shame in the humiliating defeat of 1967.
feudalism and monopoly and the
Egypt had lost approximately 10,000 soldiers and 1,500 officers;
domination of capital. There is no
another 5,000 soldiers and 500 officers were captured and
freedom and no democracy without
80 per cent of its military equipment destroyed.
equality and no equality with
feudalism and exploitation and
Economic and social policies under Nasser domination of capital.
The Nasserist regime set about introducing social and economic
Gamal Abdel
changes in Egyptian society through new legislation. The aims of
these policies were to break away from the old social, economic and
political order and end the privileges of the large landowners.
Nasser strove to build popular support amongst the poorer sectors
of society, in particular the rural workers. His aim was to encourage One of the principal aims of the
the industrialization and modernization of Egypt. land reform scheme is to direct new
investment into the improvement of
Within weeks of coming to power, in September 1952, the RCC land and into mining, industrial
enacted the first Agrarian Reform Act. This law aimed to offer the and commercial enterprise.
poorer fellahin (farmers) the possibility of a better life. It aimed to do
Gamal Abdel Nasser
this through a fairer land distribution by setting a limit on the size of
property. The law stated that the maximum holding for a family 323
 6 L Post-war developments in the Middle East, 19452000

would be 200 feddans. The surplus land was then sold at a favourable
price to those farmers who owned less than 5 feddans. The poor Discussion point
farmers were given 30 years to pay back the state. The dispossessed The Aswan Dam
owners were to be compensated with government bonds. As this was
The Aswan High Dam controls
deemed an insufficient amount of time to pay back the debt, in 1962,
the flooding of the Nile, stores
with the launching of the National Charter the period for payment water for times of drought and
was raised to 40 years. The National Charter also extended land provides hydro-electric power.
distribution by lowering the ceiling of ownership to 100 feddans in These benefits do not come
1962. As a result of the Land Reform Act, rents were lowered and without a price. Dams, like any
co-operatives were established for the very poor farmers (those who other technical advancement,
owned less than 5 feddans). These co-operatives provided farmers need to be reviewed in the light
with fertilizers, seeds, pesticides and transportation for the products of the environmental, and social
to the market. Other conditions included the introduction of a impact it has on the country.
minimum wage for agricultural workers, and access to the national
What type of environmental
power grid for electricity extended to many villages. and social impact did the
In April 1954 Nasser announced the confiscation of land belonging to Aswan Dam have?
the royal family. This was redistributed in the same manner to the poor
farmers. Through this redistribution, 869 landless peasant families in
the Beheira province near Alexandria were given land. On this occasion
Nasser pledged to work to establish decent living standards for all
workers and peasants, but urged them not to expect miraculous results.
The new labour laws addressed the industrial workers with a similar
aim to gain popularity and raise living standards. These reforms included
a raise in the minimum wage, a reduction in working hours, job
creation (especially in the public sector), the introduction of rent
control, and a programme to construct housing for workers.
In 1957 the National Planning Committee was established giving
the state a leading role in organizing the economy. The economic
system under Nasser has been called State Capitalism because,
while maintaining the capitalist system, it placed much of the
ownership in the hands of the state and created a large public
sector. In the 1960s economic policies shifted further towards a
greater state monopoly. In 1960 Egypt launched its first Five Year
Plan. The plan placed emphasis on industrial development
supported by a programme of nationalization announced in the
1962 National Charter. By 1970 the public sector accounted for
74 per cent of all industrial production, 46 per cent of all
production (as rural production remained largely in private
hands), 90 per cent of all investment and 32 per cent of the GNP.
The public sector workers were provided with a decent pension,
a minimum wage and health care.
The economic and social reforms included a major project to
build a dam at Aswan. This would improve the irrigation system
and be a major source of hydroelectric power. The project began
in 1960 and was completed in 1970. As a result of this project
the agricultural areas increased from 5.2 to 5.8 million feddans.
Another area of public life through which the Nasserist regime
could distinguish itself from the past was the provision of
education. The government increased its spending on education Ceremonies on completion of the Aswan High
324 with the goal of obtaining national and cultural unity. The slogan Dam. Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet
Two new schools every three days was posted everywhere. Union with Nasser, 01 January 1964.
 6 LEgypt

Though this remained a publicity slogan, the number of students

increased substantially. Enrolment in primary schools went up from
1.3 million in 1953 to 3.6 million in 1970. Government figures also
showed a fall in the illiteracy rate from 80 to 50 per cent. Nasser also
encouraged university education by making it free and promising
every university graduate a government job.
Women in Egypt had already expressed their political demands
before the Nasserist revolution. Doria Shafig and her organization
Daughter of the Nile Union were at the forefront of the movement
to obtain the right to vote. The RCCs discourse was clearly
progressive, however no practical reform in the voting system
seemed forthcoming. In March 1954 Shafig and 18 other women
went on a hunger strike in protest. They were promised that the
matter would be considered. Two years later, in 1956, women won ty:
the right to vote. By 1957 modest changes occurred, two women Activi
were elected to the National Assembly, and state education was Daughter of the Nile
opened to both sexes. The 1962 National Charter stated that women Union
were equal to men; it allowed for an increase in the number of Research Doria Shafiq and the
women in universities and the workforce. Women were even given Daughter of the Nile Union.
access to the Al-Azhar University, a religious institution previously How did her movement
closed to women. In 1963 laws were passed that promoted equal pay compare to women's
between men and women. Nassers regime did not, however, alter movements elsewhere?
the discriminatory measures of the existing family laws.
Nasser died in 1970 of a heart attack at the age of 52. The Egyptians
were overwhelmed by a sense of loss, not because they supported
his policies, but because they feared the future without him. In the
words of historian Mary Ann Fay he had left behind an imperfect
and unfinished revolution.

ty:
Activi
Verdicts on Gamal Abdel Nasser
Nassers name has gone down in history as the Source B
dynamic and charismatic President who put Egypt back
He pushed Egypt ahead, but soon let his fantasy take over,
on the map. He broke with Egypts past and
leading to the disaster of 5 June 1967 From a zaim [Arabic
transformed its society according to a new set of rules.
work meaning the courageous one] he turned into a prophet
These rules were not always well thought-out in
whom no one could criticize. He was all in one. In him were
advance and some have left Egypt with a legacy of
embodied all the national gains of Egypt ever since the
economic inefficiency, an oversized bureaucracy and
country had a recorded history. Suez was the turning point. It
a political system centered around one person:
led him to believe that revolutionary Egypt vanquished
the president.
Imperialism and that had it not been for Nasser this would
Using the information in this section and the following not have happened. Victory was his victory, protected by
passages, discuss Nassers contribution to the history of Providence. Everyone forgot Egypt was not victorious in 1956!
the Egyptian state. Source: Hussein DhuI Fiqar Sabri, quoted in the independent
Egyptian weekly Rose-el Youssef. 18 July 1975.
Source A
Nasser changed the course of the country's history He Source C
understood what democracy is. He loved the common man.
For 18 Years Nasser Had Almost Hypnotic Power in His
Source: Statement by Amin Howeidi, former Minister of Defence
and chief of Egyptian General Intelligence, quoted in the bi-lingual
Leadership of Egyptians
EgyptianFrench daily newspaper Al Ahram. 5 November 2009. Source: Obituary headline, New York Times, 29 September 1970.

325
 6 L Post-war developments in the Middle East, 19452000

Source D Source F
Abdel Nasser was not a tyrant as some believe. He was He overwhelmed us with his magic and the hopes, dreams
considerate, frank and decisive. He sought to understand and promises which underlay the victories of the revolution
what was being presented to him before he made a which he repeatedly announced to us with their pipes
decision. and drums, anthems, songs and films, which made us see
Source: Statement from 1968 by Abdel Wahab al Burullusi, ourselves as a great industrial state, leaders of the developing
Minister of Public Health, published in Rose-el Youssef. world and the strongest military power in the Middle East.
29 September 1975.
Source: Tawfig al Hakim, an Egyptian writer whose play, El Sultan
El Haer (The Perplexed Sultan) , from 1960, could be regarded as
Source E a mild critique of Nasser. Quoted in Vatikiotis, P.J. 1978. Nasser
and his Generation. New York, USA. St. Martins Press. p. 320.
signaled to the nation and it awoke; he signaled to the
army and it moved; he signaled to the king and he
Source G
departed; he berated imperialism and it exited from the
country, feudalism and it was smashed, political parties
and they were dissolved.
Source: From Shakhsiyyat Abdel Nasir (The Personality of Abdel
Nasser) by M Rabi, published in 1966. Quoted in Vatikiotis, P.J.
1978. Nasser and his Generation, New York, USA. St. Martins
Press. p. 313.

Nassers charisma may well have anaesthetized the

Egyptians. The fact remains that his autocracy founded
little that is politically lasting, even though it may have
provided the outlines of social and economic change in
the future.
Source: Vatikiotis, P.J. 1978. Nasser and his Generation.
New York, USA. St. Martins Press. p. 268.

Nassers funeral, 1 October 1970.

Anwar Sadat, 19701981

Anwar Sadat, Nassers successor was faced with a country that
mourned its hero but was also in desperate need of an overhaul.
The economy was stagnant. There were signs of social unrest; 1968
had already seen widespread demonstrations by students and workers
in major cities. Many were frustrated at government inefficiency and
corruption. Politically the tension that reigned between Israel and
Egypt left many Egyptians feeling uncertain about the future. In the
11 years that Sadat took control, he succeeded in reorienting the
country on a new path economically, politically and socially. Under
the slogan the revolution of rectifications, he set about correcting
his predecessors mistakes. In most cases this meant a total reversal
of the Nasserist regime.
Sadat had been a member of the Free Officers Group. In 1954 he
was the Minister of State and in 1956 he chaired the
National Union. Between 1960 and 1968 he became vice-
president, a post to which he was reappointed in December 1969
and was therefore acting president at the time of Nassers untimely
death. His candidacy for the position in the long term was
326