the International Journal Volume 11

on Marine Navigation Number 2

http://www.transnav.eu and Safety of Sea Transportation June 2017

DOI:10.12716/1001.11.02.01

The Concept of Time in Navigation

A.Weintrit
GdyniaMaritimeUniversity,Gdynia,Poland

ABSTRACT:Thearticlediscussestheconceptoftimeinnavigation,especiallyinmarinenavigation,aswellas
selected time measures, among others: Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), Universal Time Coordinated (UTC),
International Atomic Time TAI (Temps Atomique International), GPST (Global Positioning System Time)
eLoranTimeandinterrelationbetweenthesemeasures.Understandinghowtimeisinvolvedinnavigation,and
using it, is one of the navigators most important duties. Nowadays we have satellite navigation to help us
knowwhereweare.Thesesatellitescontainseveralverypreciseandaccurateclocks,becausetimeandlocation
are completely and totally interrelated in satellite navigation. There is growing interest internationally
concerningthevulnerabilityGlobalNavigationSatelliteSystems(GNSS)tonaturalandmanmadeinterference,
plusthejammingandspoofingoftheirtransmissions.Thesevulnerabilitieshaveledtoademandforsourcesof
resilientPNT(Positioning,NavigationandTiming)[16],includingarobustmeansofdistributingprecisetime
nationallyandinternationally.

1 INTRODUCTION
Timeistheindefinitecontinuedprogressofexistence
and events that occur in apparently irreversible
succession from the past through the present to the
future [9]. Time is a component quantity of various
measurements used to sequence events, to compare
thedurationofeventsortheintervalsbetweenthem,
and to quantify rates of change of quantities in
materialrealityorintheconsciousexperience.Timeis
oftenreferredtoasthefourth dimension, along with
thethreespatialdimensions[2].
The history of the origins of time measurement is
very distant and closely associated with the
development of astronomical research. The count of
time is of great importance in everyday life and has
alsoplayedanimportantroleinnavigation[14].
Inthe20sand30softhetwentiethcentury,thatis,
during the initial period of the maritime
radionavigation, the problem of time knowledge did
not really matter to the user, as the position was
measured by the only one radiolocation device, i.e.
radio direction finder (RDF), where measured
parameter was angle. The situation has radically
changed with the emergence of new methods, based
on distance measurements or distance differences,
andwhentherewasaneedtosynchronizebroadcast
time transmissions. If in classical navigation and
astronavigation the accuracy of 0.5 s, even 1 s both
measurement and knowledge of time was sufficient,
unfortunately in radionavigation became
unacceptable. The problem of creating one, common
toall,timescales,becameofparticularimportanceat
thelaunchofnewterrestrialradionavigationsystems
and satellite navigation systems covering the entire
surfaceoftheEarth.

209
 For several years now, especially in longterm
measurements of radio frequency and time signals
have been used mainly the radio signals emitted by
navigation systems. This is possible because
navigational systems are based on the measurement
ofthedelayofradiosignalsemittedbyseveralremote
transmittingstations,andthenatureoftheoperation
of these systems indicates that all stations must emit
synchronous signals based on one common time
scale.Thesevaluablepropertiesofsignalsemittedby
navigationsystemshavemadethemusedtomeasure
the frequency and time of signals used in
synchronous telecommunication systems. Some
operatorsalsousethesesignalstodirectlycontrolthe
clockoftelecommunicationdevices.
The first global radionavigation system was the
Omega system, which has long since been
decommissioned [12]. The practical application for
synchronization of telecommunication networks has
found the LoranC system, whose some individual
chains are still interwoven with some marine areas.
However, the widespread use of navigation system
signalsforthesynchronizationoftelecommunications
networkshasonlybroughttheGPSsystem.
2 CONCEPTOFTIME
Timeisthephysicalsize,characterizingeventsbythe
order in which they occur. Usually, time is used in
threecompletelydifferentmeanings[14]:
as the moment (point of duration) at which the
event took place; in practice, this means that the
exact date of the selected time point is given, e.g.
when the position of the ship is determined; in
satellite systems this refers, for example, to the
timethesatellitetransmitsthesignal;
asaperiodorintervalbetweentwoborderevents,
e.g. time between two observed positions; in
satellite systems, this refers, for example, to the
timeofpropagationofthesignalontheroutefrom
satellite(themomentofsendingthesignal)tothe
terrestrial user (the time of signal reception by
receiver);
as a duration or continuance, a measure of the
length of the past time, such as watch duration,
durationofcounting,starlife;insatellitesystems,
thisrefers,forexample,totheeffectivelifetimeof
anorbitingsatellite.
Time as a duration means the past, present, and
futureofallexistence.Timeasanintervalcoversthe
period between two events. As a point in duration,
time means the precise instance, second, minute,
hour,day,month,andyearasdeterminedbyaclock
orcalendar.
The basic unit of time is the second (s). Over the
past several decades, the definition of a second has
changedseveraltimesasunitsoftime,andnewtime
scaleshavebeenestablished.Thesechangesweredue
to the introduction of ever more accurate time
patterns, from mechanical through quartz to atomic,
andinthenotsodistantfuturealsohydrogen.
210
3 UNDERSTANDINGTIMEINNAVIGATION
Timeunderstandasapointindurationcanusemany
different reference points. When we talk about local
time, noon for our location is quite different from
noontosomeoneinAustraliaorAmerica.Ifwewant
to reference time to some common point so that
everyone in the world knows what that time is, then
wemustallagreeonthepoint.GreenwichMeanTime
(GMT)istheprimarytimeusedforofficialeventsand
ismeasuredatthezeromeridianinGreenwich,which
has been agreed upon by all nations of the world
morethanhundredyearsago.Timeandlongitudeare
so intertwined in navigation that it is difficult to
discuss of one without understanding the other. But
before we get into this relationship, let go first to
cover some history in the search for time, its
measurement, and the inventions used to measure it
[11],[15].
Formostofhistory,ordinarypeopledidnothave
access to any kind of timemeasuring device, other
than to glance at the sky on a sunny day and see
wherethesunwas.Forthem,timeasweunderstand
ittodaydidnotreallyexist.Themeasurementoftime
began with the invention of sundials in ancient
Babylon and Egypt about 16th century BC. The need
for a way to measure time independently of the sun
eventually gave rise to various devices, such as
sandglasses, waterclocks, and glowing candles.
Sandglassesandwaterclocksutilizedtheflowofsand
and water to measure time, while candles used their
decreased height. All three provided a metaphor for
time as something that flows continuously, and thus
begantoshapethewayweusuallythinkoftime[11].
Thoughtheiraccuracywasnotgreat,thesedevices
providedawaytomeasuretimewithouttheneedfor
the sun to be visible. Each of these timemeasuring
devices carried markings designed to give sundial
time. In addition to a lack of accuracy, sandglasses,
waterclocks,andcandleshadtoberesetfrequently.It
did not collide with great discoveries; Bartolomeo
Dias,ChristopherColumbusandVascodaGamahad
tousehourglassestomeasuretime.
Afterthediscoveryofthelawsofthependulum,a
moreaccurateclockwasinventedthatcouldnotonly
countthehours,buteventuallyminutesandseconds.
Theideaofmeasuringtimebysplittingitintoequal,
discreteintervalsandcountingthemwasatoddswith
the concept of time as something that flows. The
division of a day into 24 equal hours, of each hour
into 60 minutes, and of each minute into 60 seconds
are all human inventions required by the need for a
moreaccuratemeasurementoftime[15].
Despite the various improvements, most early
clocks were highly unreliable. However, this was of
little consequence, since they could be checked and
adjusted regularly by reference to the sun. Thus,
despite the technology and the mechanical nature of
the time clocks produced, time was still ultimately
dependentonthesun.
By the middle of the seventeenth century,
pendulum clocks that were accurate to within 10
seconds per day were being manufactured. This was
far more precise than the sundial. But, for the vast
majority of the worlds population, the sun would
continuetoprovidetheprincipalmeansoftellingthe
localtime.However,thedefinitivetimewasprovided
byaclock.Fromthenon,clockswereusedtosetand
calibrate sundials, rather than the other way around
aspreviouslyhadbeenthecase[11].
Of course, any system that used the sundial as a
primary reference point was using local time. To
bring order to this temporal chaos, regional time
zones started to develop. By the late nineteenth
century, many countries had adopted uniform time
systemswithintheirbordersbuttherewashardlyany
coordinationbetweennations.Inparticular,therewas
thefundamentalissueofwheretolocatethebaseline
formeasuringlongitude.
Time and navigation are inextricably linked
together.Forexample,ifsomepeoplelivedononeof
thePacificIslands,theylearnedaboutthecurrentsin
theseaandthestarsinthesky.Withthestarsinthe
sky they could figure out where they were when
sailingfromoneislandtoanother.Thereisplentyof
available information on the early methods of
navigation, even ancient. In the Middle Ages there
was a great desire to improve navigation and there
wasagreatpushtoadvancethetechnologybetween
15001800aswerealizedthatifweknewwhattimeit
was we could determine our longitude. We also
shifted from using the quadrant and astrolabe to the
sextant. It was in the 1700s that John Harrison
invented the marine chronometer, a longsought
timekeeping device to solve the problem of
establishing ones East/West position (longitude) at
sea. This is really important because if your clock is
offthatmeansyourlongitudewillbeofftoo.
The establishment of a worldwide system to
measure longitude brought with it a notion of
worldwidetime.Sincethereare24hoursinadayand
360 degrees in a circle, each 15 degrees of longitude
represented one hour. Thus, by wrapping a 360
degreelongitudinalgridaroundtheearth,theplanet
was divided into 24 time zones, each one hour
differentfromitsneighbours.
Though largely hidden from our view, the fine
grained notion of time in use today, based on the
movement of pulsars and measured by the tiny
quantum energy states of the atom, quite literally
affects the very fabric of our daily lives and the way
weviewourselvesandtheworldwelivein.Welive
by the clock, and in many ways we are slaves to the
clock. The use of Greenwich Mean Time for celestial
navigationisrequiredsincealltheNauticalAlmanac
tablesarereferencedtoGMTanditistheofficialtime
for all maritime navigation. Accurate time is very
important to celestial because any clock errors will
throwthefixoffbymanymiles.
4 DEFINITIONOFTIMEUNIT
Any recurrent physical phenomenon can be used to
determine the time unit pattern. Initially, the second
was related to the rotation of the Earth. In 1832,
Charles F. Gauss defined a second as 1/86400 part of
themeansolarday,i.e.theperiodbetweenthelower
culmination of the mean Sun. This approach
remained until 1956. From this definition it was
evident that the time unit was derived from the
rotationoftheEartharounditsaxis,whichwas then
considered to be even. Improving the accuracy of
clocks, especially after introducing of William H.
Short and the quartz clocks, in the 1920s and 1930s
enabled the first to detect and then measure the
annual changes in the rotation of the Earth. In order
toeliminatetheseirregularitiesin1956,thedefinition
ofasecondwaschanged,referringnowtotheperiod
of Earths circulation around the Sun, more precisely
tothetropicalyearin1900(theyearofthetropics,the
timebetweensuccessivepassagesoftheSunthrough
thepointofAries,wherecelestialequatorcrossesthe
ecliptic, and also the cycle of repetition of the
seasons). Because of the earlier Simon Newcombs
theoryofthemotionofEarthitwasapparentthatthe
tropical year was 31556925,9747... seconds, the new
definitionsaidthatthesecondis1/31556925,9747part
ofthetropicalyear.In1960,suchadefinitionentered
theSI,althoughnotforlong[14],[15].
Inthemeantime,worksattheNationalBureauof
Standards (USA) have shown that it is possible to
phaseconjugate a quartz oscillator to the resonant
frequency of a quantum transition in certain
molecules or atoms. In such a process, strong quartz
oscillations are tuned into the feedback loop so that
they are accurate replicas of the weak quantum
signal. Soon the frequency standard based on atomic
cesium prototype of modern atomic clocks was
made.Theprecisionofthistypeofdevice,surpassing
severalordersofmagnitude,theconventionalquartz
oscillator, finally led to a second redefinition: the SI
secondisthedurationof9,192,631,770periodsofthe
radiationcorrespondingtothetransitionbetweenthe
two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the
cesium133atom(1967).
This SI second, referred to atomic time, was later
verifiedtobeinagreement,within1partin1010,with
the second of ephemeris time as determined from
lunar observations. Nevertheless, this SI second was
already,whenadopted,alittleshorterthanthethen
currentvalueofthesecondofmeansolartime
Where did such number of periods in this
definition come from? The first cesium frequency
bands had the accuracy of one part per 109 1010,
while the universal time seconds, even after
smoothing seasonal fluctuations and Earthbound
(UT2)fluctuations,couldhavevariedatseverallevels
in108overadecade.Itwasnecessarytodeterminethe
frequency of cesium transition with a better unit,
ephemeris seconds. Between 1955 and 1958, special
observations of the Moon were made (the ephemeris
time is best determined on this object), receiving at
thefrequencyof919263177020Hz.Theinaccuracy
ofthisresultismainlyduetotheerrorofephemeris.
Further followup to 1967 confirmed this result. To
thisday,thecompatibilityofephemerissecondswith
atomic seconds is satisfactory, although the future
willsettleforhowlong.
We can guess that the already mentioned atomic
time is the scale by which the atomic second is
discussed here. In fact, time signals distributed by
radioandavailableonadailybasisaresynchronized
to atomic frequency patterns. There are many such
patterns, and each one works independently of each
other. Consequently, there is a need to continually
comparetheirpracticesanddevelopacertainaverage
211
scale;itistheTempsAtomiqueInternational,orTAI.
Inthissituation,itwillbeveryimportanthowlongis
the TAI second. It turns out that since 1987
(previously, it was different), the TAI second is
systematicallylongerthanthedefiniteSIsecondfrom
the sea level. In 1995, the difference was specifically
one part for 1014. Who cared about such a small
deviation? However, there are more serious reasons
for efforts to improve this scale. They provide the
pulsars fastrotating neutron stars. It seems very
likely that some of the millisecond pulsars rotate
more stable than the best atomic scales in averaging
periods of the order of a year or more. At such
intervals, the instability of atomic patterns may
therefore limit the accuracy of certain parameters
obtainedfromobservation[14].
Good example of the use of atomic clocks is
provided by the Global Positioning System. GPS
depends on a network of 24 satellites orbiting the
earth.Eachsatellitecontinuallybeamsdownasignal
giving its position and the meantime determined by
thefouratomicclocksitcarriesonboard.Bypicking
up and comparing the time signals from three
satellites, a ground receiver can compute its latitude
andlongitudewithanaccuracyofafewmeterswith
selective availability turned off. The clocks on the
satellites have to be extremely accurate. The
determination of the position of the ground receiver
depends on the tiny intervals of time it takes an
electromagnetic signal to travel from each of the
satellites to the receiver. Since the signal travels at
186,000 miles per second, a timing error of one
billionth of a second will produce a position error of
about one foot. The onboard clocks are accurate to
onesecondin30,000years[11].
5 TIMESCALES
Themostimportantobservationofcoveringthestars
by the Moon is the moment in time when the
phenomenon occurred. An observer should have
access to a time service, that is, a clock operating
according to a certain scale. Time information was
obtained over the ages from different sources,
including shuttle clocks. For marine users, these
timers, however, were not useful due to rolling and
pitching.Thesituationchangedradicallyonlyin1759
whenEnglishwatchmakerJohnHarrisonLongitude
replaced the pendulum with a metal spring and
constructed the first mechanical chronometer. Until
theappearanceonthemarketthefirstreceiversofthe
satellite Transit system, the chronometers were the
main sources of time information on seabased
vessels.
In order to establish a time scale, you should not
only measure, calibrate, but also determine the
beginning of the time scale. Earths rotation is
associated with three time scales: star time, mean
solar time, and the most known universal time UT,
basedonaveragedoverayearofEarthrotation.
Themostfamousinternationaltimescalesinclude
thefollowingscales:
UT Universal Time is counted from 0 hours at
midnight, with unit of duration the mean solar
212
day, defined to be as uniform as possible despite
variationsintherotationoftheEarth;
UT1istheprincipalformofUniversalTime;while
conceptuallyitismeansolartimeat0longitude,
precise measurements of the Sun are difficult;
hence,itiscomputedfromobservationsofdistant
quasars using long baseline interferometry, laser
ranging of the Moon and artificial satellites, as
well as the determination of GPS satellite orbits;
UT1 is the same everywhere on Earth, and is
proportionaltotherotationangleoftheEarthwith
respect to distant quasars, specifically, the
International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF),
neglecting some small adjustments; the
observationsallowthedeterminationofameasure
oftheEarthsanglewithrespecttotheICRF,called
theEarthRotationAngle(ERA,whichservesasa
modernreplacementforGreenwichMeanSidereal
Time);UT1iscomputedbycorrectingUT0forthe
effect of polar motion on the longitude of the
observingsite;itvariesfromuniformitybecauseof
theirregularitiesintheEarthsrotation;
UT0istherotationaltimeofaparticularplaceof
observation;localapproximationofuniversaltime
without taking into account polar motion; it is
observed as the diurnal motion of stars or
extraterrestrial radio sources., and also from
ranging observations of the Moon and artificial
Earth satellites. The location of the observatory is
considered to have fixed coordinates in a
terrestrial reference frame (such as the
International Terrestrial Reference Frame) but the
positionoftherotationalaxisoftheEarthwanders
over the surface of the Earth; the difference
betweenUT0andUT1isontheorderofafewtens
of milliseconds; the designation UT0 is no longer
incommonuse;
UTC (GMT) Coordinated Universal Time; it
differsfromTAIbyanintegralnumberofseconds;
itistheinternationalstandardonwhichciviltime
is based; it ticks SI seconds, in step with TAI; it
usually has 86,400 SI seconds per day but is kept
within 0.9 seconds of UT1 by the introduction of
onesecond steps to UTC, the leap second; as of
2017, these leaps have always been positive (the
days which contained a leap second were 86,401
secondslong);wheneveralevelofaccuracybetter
thanonesecondisnotrequired,UTCcanbeused
as an approximation of UT1; the difference
betweenUT1andUTCisknownasDUT1;
TAI is the International Atomic Time scale, a
statistical timescale based on a large number of
atomicclocks;theunitofthistimeisSIsecond;
TDT (Terrestrial Dynamical Time) or TT
(Terrestrial Time) Earth dynamic time, used for
observation from the surface of the Earth; with
unit of duration 86400 SI seconds on the geoid, is
the independent argument of apparent geocentric
ephemerides.TDT=TAI+32.184seconds;
TDB (Barycentric Dynamical Time) Barycentric
dynamic time, used for ephemeris related to the
solar barycentric system; is the independent
argument of ephemerides and dynamical theories
that are referred to the solar system barycentre;
TDBvariesfromTTonlybyperiodicvariations;
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) is the mean solar
time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich,
London. GMT was formerly used as the
 international civil time standard, now superseded
in that function by Coordinated Universal Time
(UTC). Today GMT is considered equivalent to
UTC for UK civil purposes (but this is not
formalised) and for navigation is considered
equivalenttoUT1(themodernformofmeansolar
time at 0 longitude); these two meanings can
differbyupto0.9s.Consequently,thetermGMT
shouldnotbeusedforprecisepurposes;
GAST (Greenwich Apparent Sideral Time)
associated with the true equinox date; is
Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time (GMST) corrected
for the shift in the position of the vernal equinox
due to nutation. Nutation is the mathematically
predictable change in the direction of the earths
axis of rotation due to changing external torques
from the sun, moon and planets. The smoothly
varying part of the change in the earths
orientation(precession)isalreadyaccountedforin
GMST.Therightascensioncomponentofnutation
iscalledtheequationoftheequinoxes;
GMST (Greenwich Mean Sideral Time) average
time of the star for the Greenwich meridian; it is
themeasureoftheearthsrotationwithrespectto
distant celestial objects; linked to the average
equinox for a given date. Compare this to UT1,
which is the rotation of the earth with respect to
themeanpositionofthesun.Onesiderealsecond
isapproximately365.25/366.25ofaUT1second.In
other words, there is one more day in a sidereal
yearthaninasolaryear.
Currently, GMT can be considered as a general
equivalentof universal time UT. The ephemeris time
ET, which today only has historical significance, is
associated with the Kepler movement, or central
gravitybased movement. Ephemeris time ET was a
dynamic scale used in the period 19601983. Later it
was replaced by the TDT and TDB scales. The
difference between earthly and barycentric dynamic
time scale is due to the change of gravitational
potentialalongtheEarthsorbit.
After the introduction of atomic time models into
themarketinthe1960s,anewtermemergedatomic
time, the unit of which is the atomic second. The
beginning of the atomic time scale was set at
1January195800h00m00sUT2.Atthistimethetime
in both scales was identical. Since then there have
beentwotimescales,onebasedonrotationalmotion
oftheEarth,andtheotheronatomicpatterns.Earths
rotationisassociatedwithdayandnightphenomena
that are associated with the biological cycle of all
living organisms living there. Therefore, on the one
hand, it was necessary to measure time with
increasing accuracy, and on the other hand to
continueusinguniversaltime.Duetothefactthatone
second in atomic time is shorter by about 2.6 108 s,
the number of past atomic seconds increases faster
thantheuniversalones. That means that after a year
the atomic scale reading will be about 0.82 s larger
than the universal scale. For this reason, a
compromise solution was needed that would take
into account both the advantages of atomic patterns
and the changes in rotation and circulation of the
Earth. This solution has introduced a new time scale
called Coordinated Universal Time Universal Time
Coordinated(UTC).
CoordinatedUniversalTimeUTC standard time
based on TAI taking into account the irregular
rotationoftheEarthandcoordinatedwithsolartime.
ToensurethatthemeanSunoverayearpassesover
Greenwich meridian at 12:00 UTC, with an accuracy
of not less than 0.9 s, from time to time to UTC is
added socalled transient second. This operation is
carried out by IERS (International Earth Rotation
Service). Coordinated Universal Time is expressed
using a 24hour clock and uses the Gregorian
calendar. It is used in air and maritime navigation,
whereitisknownunderthemilitarynameZulutime
(Zulu in the phonetic alphabet corresponds to the
letterz,whichdenotestheGreenwichmeridian0).
In October 1971, the atomic scale of TAI (Inter
national Atomic Time) was introduced officially,
basedon atomic patterns in which the unit is said SI
second. The difference between TAI and UT1 on the
beginning of selected years is shown in Table 1. The
difference is growing steadily, exceeding the 34
secondsin2010and37secondsin2017.
Table1. Difference between TAI and UT1 on 1st Jan. in
selectedyears
_______________________________________________
Year TAIUT1[s]
_______________________________________________
1558 0
1968 6,1
1978 16,4
1988 23,6
1998 30,8
2003 32,3
_______________________________________________
Earths spin is not uniform. Quasiperiodic
changesaswellasagedeclineareobserved.Because
of this, time scales based on Earths rotation are
changingrelativetoatomictimeanddynamicscales.
DeltaTisthedifferencebetweenTerrestrialTime(TT)
andUniversalTime(UT1)i.e.
DeltaT=TTUT1.
It is a measure of the difference between a time
scalebasedontherotationoftheEarth(UT1)andan
idealiseduniformtimescaleatthesurfaceoftheEarth
(TT). TT is realised in practice by TAI, International
AtomicTime,whereTT(TDT)=TAI+32.184seconds.
In order to predict the circumstances of an event on
the surface of the Earth such as a solar eclipse, a
predictionofDeltaTmustbemadeforthatinstantof
TT.
DeltaT=TDTUT
ThevalueofDeltaTchangesquiteirregularlyand
is difficult to predict. The length of the day varies
throughout the year by 0.002 seconds. The speed of
rotationoftheEarthishighestinJulyandAugustand
thesmallestinMarch.
213

Figure1.Annualirregularitiesinvortexmovement[1]
Tidal forces in the EarthMoon system cause
energydissipationandsynchronizationoftheMoons
spinmotionrelativetoitsorbitalmotion.Thespeedof
rotationoftheEarthalsodependsontidalforces.For
example, the difference T in 1999 was about 64 s
(Fig.2).
Figure2. Irregularities in vortex movement in recent years
(basedondatafromTheAstronomicalAlmanac[1])
Thediagram(Fig.3)displaysthevaluesofDeltaT
forthetelescopicera(1620tothepresent)astabulated
on pages K8 and K9 of the current edition of The
Astronomical Almanac [1]. Data are given for the
beginning of each year. A simple parabolic function
used to estimate Delta T is also plotted for
comparisonpurposes.IttakestheformDeltaT=20
+ 32T2 [8], where T is the number of centuries since
1820. This function is based on the assumption that
thelengthofthemean solar day has been increasing
byabout1.7millisecondspercentury.
Figure3. Telescopic era values of Delta T (1620 to 2017)
[1],[8]
The diagram (Fig. 4) shows the values of Delta T
derived from Bulletin B of the IERS. Two sets of
predictions are also provided for comparison
214
purposes.ThedailyDelta T data and predictions are
plotted for the interval 2000 to 2050 from MICA
v2.2.2. The predictions derived from the IERS Sub
bureau for Rapid Service and Predictions are also
plottedfortheperiod2006 April 1 to 2027 October 1
alongwiththeiruncertainties(verticalerrorbars).The
current trend of observed Delta T data lies between
the two sets of predictions. This diagram illustrates
theproblemfacedbyalmanacproducerswhentrying
to estimate suitable values of Delta T for future
almanacs.
Figure4. Current values and longer term predictions of
DeltaT(2000to2050)[1]
6 GPSTIME(GPST)
Over the last twenty years, the Global Positioning
System (GPS) has become the primary tool for
national and international atomic clocks. This
technique gives ten times better accuracy than using
the LoranC navigation system (also used for most
timestationservicesinmanyWesterncountries).This
is why for the first time the best world frequency
standards can be compared in a way that is accurate
totheiraccuracy.Sofar,atomicclocktechnologyhas
always been ahead of time. Time accuracy of GPS
satellites is 1020 ns (1 ns = 109 s) at intercontinental
distances and 23 ns within one continent. With
average averaging of 10 days, the difference in
pattern frequencies is measured at one part level at
1014. There are further studies counting on achieving
clockaccuracyof0.3nsorbetter.
GPS is a satellite navigation system based on
measurementsofdistancestosatellites.Atomicclocks
(cesium or rubidium). It allows you to instantly and
continuously determine position and time anywhere
intheworld.
Nearly all of the time service labs are equipped
withwellperforming,fullyautomatedGPSreceivers.
Thesystemhasitsowntime,thesocalledGPST(GPS
Time). GPS time is a continuous scale (GPS time
counting started midnight from 5 to 6 January 1980
00h 00m 00s UTC) synchronized to one microsecond
accuracywithUTC(USNO)time,i.e.,UTCtimeinthe
United States Naval Observatory (in turn this
implementationdiffersfromUTCingenerallessthan
1ms).AsfarasGPSisconcerned,noleapsecondsare
introduced, so far (first half of 2017), the difference
between UTC has risen to 18 seconds (GPST UTC);
the TAI GPST difference is approximately 19
seconds. GPS satellite signals carry encoded
information about the current satellite clock
correctionrelativetoGPStimeandUTC(USNO)time
withaccuracy100ns.
Table2. Difference between local time LT, UTC, GPS time,
LorantimeandTAI:for17032007at12:14:36UTC[6]
for12122010at20:32:10UTC
for01062011at20:21:36UTC
for13052017at22:21:43UTC
7 PRACTICALUSEOFTHETIMESCALES
Which of the many time scales should we use in
practice? It depends on the situation, on our needs,
abilities and on specific applications. A sailor, an
amateurofastronavigationforobservation,should,in
principle,havesufficienttimeintheBalticSearegion,
CET or EET (Central or Eastern European Time),
obtainedbysynchronizingthelocalclocktotheradio
time signals of one of the many stations. When
compiling observations, it should convert this time
intoauniversaltimecoordinatedUTCbysubtracting
1or2hoursfromthetimezone.Sunobserversshould
havetheabilitytocalculatetherealsuntime,because
it governs the position of the sun relative to the
horizon; e.g. at 12:00 oclock that time, the sun is on
the local meridian, i.e. in the highest point on the
horizon. Real time is obtained from the universal by
addingthelongitudeoftheplace(,positivelyEastof
Greenwich)andaddingthetimeequation(readfrom
theastronomicalalmanac).Ifweareinterestedinthe
accuracyofonesecond,thenwedonothavetoworry
about the differences between UTC, UT0, UT1 and
UT2 identifying them with just universal time, UT
[14].
Professional astronomers may need rotational
time, so they should convert UTC to UT1 by adding
appropriatecorrections(calledDUT1anddUT1 with
accuracyof0.1and0.02srespectively)alsoreadfrom
radiosignals:UT1=UTC+DUT1+dUT1.
Tosetupatelescopeforaparticularstar,weneed
alocalrealstartime.Wecancalculateitforaspecific
time UT from the Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time
(GMST), adding a correction to the score (it is also
read from the almanac) adding the longitude of the
observationlocation:
ST=GMST+(nutation)+.
In the opposite case, we want to know when the
selected object is in a certain position relative to the
horizon.Wemustthenknoworcalculateitsanglein
this place. If the object culminates, then we know
immediatelythatitsqis0h(12h).Inothersituations,
it is generally necessary to use simple spherical
trigonometric formulas. From an hour angle, we get
instant local star time: LST = a + q, and hence the
Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time GAST = ST .
From this result, we will subtract the time to get
Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time GMST. Now to
converttheGreenwichtimeGMSTtoUT,weneedto
calculateorlookupthealmanacandreadtheGMST0,
i.e. the Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time at midnight
UTinGreenwich.IfGMST0isnumericallylargerthan
GMST, it means that the last one is for the next star
daily, so for continuity it should be returned (add to
GMST)oneday,i.e.24hours.Wenowsafelycalculate
thefinal:
UT=(GMSTGMST0)0.997269566329,
always receiving a nonnegative value less than 24h.
If the UT falls less than 4 minutes, then our object
probably(ifthereisnosignificantmotionintheright
angle) will again appear on the same hour angle (24
hoursafterthestar,i.e.after23h56m04.09sofmean
solartime).
Weshouldusetimeasuniformlyaspossibleinthe
observation results. On very long stretches, the best
approximation is the ephemeris time we get from
universaltimebyaddingtheDTparameter(weread
it from the tables or, for dates before 1620, we
calculate according to one of the analytical
expressions available in the literature). Dates are
expressedinephemerisJuliandays(JED),i.e.weuse
a simple algorithm to calculate the JED for the
calendar year, month and day, but the UT time is
replaced by the calculated ET hour. The measure of
thedistanceoftwoeventsintimeisthedifferenceof
therespectiveJuliandays:JED2JED1.
Since 1955 there is also an equivalent ephemeris
nuclear scale, but more accurate than the ET scale
related to TAI we have from January 1, 1961 (since
1972 they are full seconds time differences TAI
UTC). By moving from ET to TAI, however,
remember that these scales are shifted in relation to
each other by 32,184 seconds. Even more uniform is
theTTscaleinBIPM(BureauInternationaldesPoids
etMesures)implementation.Unfortunately,itisonly
available since 1976. TT scales can be treated exactly
the same as ET, because they are intended as
continuatorsofit.
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 Complete information on the UTC scale and its
related problems can be found in, inter alia, Vol. 2,
Admiralty List of Radio Signals in the chapter titled
RadioTimeSignals[13].
Since the early 1990s, all radio signals are UTC.
Also, the broadcasting of terrestrial broadcasting
systemsandsatellitenavigationsystemsisdirectlyor
indirectlyrelatedtoUTC.
7.1 AstronomicalTimesDefinitions
Severalimportanttimescalesstill follow the rotation
oftheearth,mostnotablycivilandsiderealtime,but
ofthesearenowderivedfromatomictimethrougha
combination of earth rotation theory and actual
measurementsoftheearthsrotationandorientation.
GMST(GreenwichMeanSiderealTime)Sidereal
timeisthemeasureoftheearthsrotationwithrespect
to distant celestial objects. Compare this to UT1,
which is the rotation of the earth with respect to the
mean position of the sun. One sidereal second is
approximately365.25/366.25ofaUT1second.Inother
words,thereisonemoredayinasiderealyearthanin
asolaryear.
Byconvention,thereferencepointsforGreenwich
Sidereal Time are the Greenwich Meridian and the
vernal equinox (the intersection of the planes of the
earthsequatorandtheearthsorbit,theecliptic).The
Greenwich sidereal day begins when the vernal
equinox is on the Greenwich Meridian. Greenwich
Mean Sidereal Time (GMST) is the hour angle of the
average position of the vernal equinox, neglecting
shorttermmotionsoftheequinoxduetonutation.
It might seem strange that UT1, a solar time, is
determined by measuring the earths rotation with
respect to distant celestial objects, and GMST, a
siderealtime,isderivedfromit.Thisoddityismainly
due our choice of solar time in defining the atomic
time second. Hence, small variations of the earths
rotation are more easily published as (UT1 Atomic
Time)differences.Inpractice,ofcourse,someformof
siderealtimeisinvolvedinmeasuringUT1.
GAST (Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time)
Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time (GAST) is
GreenwichMeanSiderealTime(GMST)correctedfor
the shift in the position of the vernal equinox due to
nutation. Nutation is the mathematically predictable
change in the direction of the earths axis of rotation
duetochangingexternaltorquesfromthesun,Moon
andplanets.Thesmoothlyvaryingpartofthechange
in the earths orientation (precession) is already
accounted for in GMST. The right ascension
component of nutation is called the equation of the
equinoxes[5].
GAST=GMST+(equationoftheequinoxes)
LMST (Local Mean Sidereal Time) Local Mean
Sidereal time is GMST plus the observers longitude
measured positive to the East of Greenwich. This is
the time commonly displayed on an observatorys
siderealclock. LMST = GMST + (observers East
longitude)
216
LST(LocalSiderealTime)ThedefinitionofLocal
SiderealTimegivenintheglossaryoftheExplanatory
SupplementtotheAstronomicalAlmanacisthelocal
hour angle of a catalog equinox. This fits the
commontextbookdefinition
HourAngle=LSTRightAscension
In practice, LST is used more loosely to mean
either LMST or Local Apparent Sidereal Time =
GAST + (observers East longitude). The operational
definitionprobablyvariesfromoneobservatorytothe
next.
7.2 TAI,UTCandLeapSeconds
The global reference for time is International Atomic
Time(TAI),atimescalecalculatedattheBIPM,using
datafromsome400atomicclocksinover70national
laboratories. The BIPM organizes clock comparisons
forthedeterminationofTAIthroughaninternational
network of time links. Corrections to local national
timing laboratory clocks are generally applied
monthly or weekly and typically will be a few
nanoseconds(ns).
TAI longterm stability is set by weighting
participating clocks. The scale unit of TAI is kept as
closeaspossibletotheSIsecondbyusingdatafrom
those national laboratories which maintain the best
primarystandards.ThesewillgenerallybeHydrogen
MasersorhighperformanceCesiumstandards.
UTC is identical to TAI except that from time to
time a leap second is added to ensure that, when
averagedover a year, the Sun crosses the Greenwich
meridian at noon UTC to within 0.9 s. The dates of
application of the leap second are decided by the
InternationalEarthRotationService(IERS)[3].
7.3 PNT(Positioning,NavigationandTiming)
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) provide
positioning, navigation, and timing information.
These satellite systems are augmented by ground
stations which can be used as reference points to
increasetheaccuracyofinformationderivedfromthe
satellitesignals.
All three: positioning (determining location),
navigation (finding your way from one to another),
and timing (supplying highly accurate time to
synchronizecomplexsystems)areusedtogetherwith
map data and other information (weather or traffic
data,forinstance)inmodernnavigationsystems[16].
We need a broad range of smart, lowcost, high
performance GPS/GNSS timing clock and test
products for next generation navigational systems. It
should be well suited for some of the following
applications:
GPS/GNSStimingformobilevehiclelocations,
navigational timing measurement & analysis
instruments,
groundpseudoGPStimingsystems,
guidance&telemetryreferenceclocks,
radar&sensortimingsystems,
submarinenavigationaltimingsystems,
 highperformanceclockstabilityanalysers.
7.4 EnhancedLoranasaNationalTimeStandard
Enhanced Loran eLoran is an internationally
standardized positioning, navigation, and timing
(PNT) service for use by many modes of transport
and in other applications. It is the latest in the long
standing and proven series of lowfrequency, Long
RangeNavigation(Loran)systems,onethattakesfull
advantageof21stcenturytechnology[3].
eLoran meets the accuracy, availability, integrity,
stabilityandcontinuityperformancerequirementsfor
aviation nonprecision instrument approaches,
maritime port and harbour entrance and approach
manoeuvres, landmobile vehicle navigation, and
locationbasedservices,andisaprecisesourceoftime
and frequency for applications such as
telecommunications. It is an independent, dissimilar,
complementtoGlobalNavigationSatelliteSystems.It
allows GNSS users to retain the safety, security, and
economic benefits of GNSS, even when their satellite
servicesaredisrupted.
What is important, eLoran meets a set of
worldwide standards and operates wholly
independently of GPS, Glonass, Galileo, BeiDou or
anyfutureGNSS.EachuserseLoranreceiverwillbe
operable in all regions where an eLoran service is
provided. eLoran receivers work automatically, with
minimal user input. eLoran transmissions are
synchronized to an identifiable, publiclycertified,
source of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) by a
methodwhollyindependentofGNSS.Thisallowsthe
eLoran Service Provider to operate on a time scale
thatissynchronizedwith,butoperatesindependently
of, GNSS time scales. Synchronizing to a common
time source will also allow receivers to employ a
mixtureofeLoranandsatellitesignals[4].
The principal difference between eLoran and
traditional LoranC is the addition of a data channel
on the transmitted signal [3]. This conveys
applicationspecific corrections, warnings, and signal
integrity information to the users receiver. It is this
data channel that allows eLoran to meet the very
demanding requirements of landing aircraft using
nonprecision instrument approaches and bringing
ships safely into harbour in lowvisibility conditions.
eLoran is also capable of providing the exceedingly
precise time and frequency references needed by the
telecommunications systems that carry voice and
internetcommunications.
Each country that contributes to Universal
Coordinated Time (UTC) operates a national time
standardthatisindependentofGNSS.Itstechnology
will generally be based on a Hydrogen Maser. This
will be adjusted using monthly corrections supplied
bytheBIPMinFrance[4].
Lowfrequency eLoran is now emerging as the
preferred advanced source of positioning, navigation
and timing (PNT) signals alternative or
complementary to global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS).eLoranisgloballystandardizedanddoesnot
share the vulnerability of GNSS to incidental or
deliberate jamming, intentional spoofing, radio
frequencyinterferenceorspaceweatherevents.
A number of countries are actively reconsidering
their dependence on GNSS across multiple critical
infrastructureapplicationsandsomeareplanningthe
implementation of eLoran transmitter networks.
Withinthiscontextfallsthequestionofhowtodeliver
their national time service to those clients who have
come to recognize their own vulnerability to the
disruption of GNSS. The paper [4] discusses the
concept of delivering such national time services by
means of eLoran signals. It was proposed the use of
eLorantodisseminateprecisetime,timingandphase
traceable to UTC for both indoor and outdoor
applications.Continuousaccuraciesofbetterthan100
nswithrespecttoUTCarebeingachievedincurrent
proofofconceptandtechnologyreadinesstrials.The
paper [4] proposes and illustrates a method of
establishing national time standard services using
eLoran. These would be traceable to sovereign
national UTC. They would be of great benefit to a
wide range of users, notably telecommunications
providersandfinancialsectororganisationsforwhom
precise time synchronisation will be required by
futureservices.Theseorganisationsarealsobecoming
concerned about their dependence on GNSS timing,
given its vulnerability to jamming and interference
and the complexity and expense of deploying it,
especiallywhenrequiredindoors.
The paper [4] explores the ability of eLoran to
distribute UTC traceable time to applications in
GNSSdeniedenvironments,includingindoors.Itsets
the foundation for further research into the
application and dissemination of UTC using eLoran
signals in geographical regions where they are
available.Researchintothistopichasbeenconducted
by Chronos Technology in collaboration with
UrsaNav[3].ThishasshownthatUTCtraceabletime
of an accuracy better than 100 ns and with a quality
comparable to that provided by GPS can be received
even indoors at ranges of more than 800 km (500
miles) from eLoran transmitting stations. This new
time service meets the latest ITU performance
standards in respect of telecommunications phase
stability.
8 THEBENEFITSANDRISKSOFUSING
TELECOMMUNICATIONSIGNALSIN
NAVIGATIONSYSTEMS
Until advances in the late twentieth century,
navigation depended on the ability to measure
latitude and longitude. Latitude can be determined
through celestial navigation; the measurement of
longitude requires accurate knowledge of time. This
need was a major motivation for the development of
accurate mechanical clocks, including marine
chronometers.Whilesatellitenavigationsystemssuch
as the Global Positioning System (GPS) require
unprecedentedly accurate knowledge of time, this is
supplied by equipment on the satellites; vessels no
longerneedtimekeepingequipment.
Thebasicrequirementforproper operation of the
GPSsystemistomaintainauniformtimescalewithin
it, and this property is used for telecommunications.
Most stationary GPS receivers have the ability to
217
output a onesecond signal (1 pps) closely related to
theGPStimescale.
ThebenefitsofusingGPSandinthefutureGalileo
(possibly also Glonass) are significant. Mass
produced nonmilitary GPS receivers are cheap,
which is conducive to a wide range of GPS
capabilities[14].
GPS signals allow you to reproduce with exactly
equalaccuracytheunambiguouslyexpressedseconds
pulses representing the GPS time scale in almost the
entire globe. A onesecond signal can be used as a
reference time signal and as a reference frequency
signal.
Standard time signals are used to maintain
accurate time uniformity in different areas of the
economy,suchas[14]:
telecommunications (charging, identification of
placesoffailure),
telematics,ITS,ICT(dataflowcontrol),
power engineering (charging, synchronization of
powergenerators),
banking(transactiondate,timestamps),
state administration (documentation of events
police,rescueservices,customs),
transport(trains,buses,ships,aircraft),
road transport (tolls, tolls, synchronized traffic
lights).
1 pps signal is used as the reference frequency
signal mainly for synchronizing telecommunication
networksandtostabilizeradiofrequencieswherethe
needs exceed the standard level. Use of GPS signals
canbedoneintwoways.
Inthefirst,passive,1ppssignalactsasareference
frequency when measuring the clock frequencies
produced by telecommunication clocks and possibly
initiating alerts in case of anomaly. In the second
mode,theactive1ppssignalisusedtogenerateclock
signals in telecommunication devices controlled
automaticallyandcorrectedbasedonGPSsignals.In
this case, mediation of the quartz or rubidium
generator affected by the digital phase loop is
required.
InthefirstsolutiontheuseofaGPSsignalallows
theplacementoftwoinsteadofthreecesiumclocksin
thatclock,whichatasubstantialpriceandforseveral
years only implies the importance of the pattern.
Economic benefits. Despite the reduction in the
number of cesium patterns, it will be possible to
indicate which of the two cesium patterns have been
damagedorthattheGPSreceiverhasbeendamaged
(disassembled). In addition, with the use of
uncomplicated measuring instruments, data can be
obtained for manual correction of the frequency of
particular cesium standards to approximate the
coherence requirements of clock signals with UTC
timescale.
The second solution applies to automatically
controlling and correcting frequencies in lower clock
hierarchically. These are SSU clocks for transit and
local nodes (a solution especially used on the
Americancontinent),andevendigitalorcellularbase
stations. Some operators under normal operating
conditionsdonotuseGPSsignals,butthiscapability
isusedinemergencysituations.Generallythisallows
218
the use of lower class quartz or rubidium generators
andthuslowertheirprice.
Intelecommunicationsapplications,thedifference
betweentheUTCtimescaleandtheGPStimescaleis
omitted.SousingtheGPSsignalsallowsyoutoplay
all the quality nodes with the UTC time scale in all
nodes of the telecommunications network, which is
an undoubted advantage of the solution. The
disadvantagesofthesolutionincludethedependence
ofthecorrectoperationoftheoperatornetworkfrom
the access to GPS signals, which the operator has no
influence.
Precisetimesignalcanbethebasisofeffectiveand
commonencryptionmethods,includinginareassuch
as finance, banking, insurance, electronic document
certification,etc.
Telecommunication providers should ask: what
would happen to existing networks if GPS were no
longer available? This discussion has shown that
Lorancanprovidetelecommunicationproviderswith
a redundant synchronization source to GPS that
satisfies some technical requirements. Legacy Loran
has historically demonstrated the ability to easily
meet the frequency performance requirements of a
PRS in a wired telephone network and the basic
requirements of the wireless CDMA (Code Division
Multiple Access) network. eLoran adds the timing
capabilities that allow it to better meet the time
synchronization requirements of CDMA and to
potentially support future networks with sub
microsecond synchronization requirements. With its
largecoverageareaanditshighlevelofperformance,
eLoran can provide telecommunications providers
with the synchronization redundancy they need to
keep their networks fully operational in the absence
ofGPS.
9 CONCLUSIONS
There are a lot of time definitions. Time is the
indefinitecontinuedprogressofexistenceandevents
that occur in apparently irreversible succession from
the past through the present to the future. Time is a
componentquantityofvariousmeasurementsusedto
sequenceevents,tocomparethedurationofeventsor
the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of
change of quantities in material reality or in the
consciousexperience.Timeisoftenreferredtoasthe
fourth dimension, along with the three spatial
dimensions[7],[10],[17].
In this paper, the Author presents the ability of
using eLoran as a national time standard and
proposes further research to assess spatial and
temporalvariationsinthereceptionofUTCtraceable
timedistributedbyusingeLoran.Itproposesthisnew
means of disseminating national sovereign UTC for
use at times and in places where GNSS is denied. It
will serve critical infrastructure applications, notably
telecommunications networks and financial services,
in which submicrosecond UTCtraceable time is
essentialtothecontinuityofoperations.Inparticular
it will serve these applications without the need for
expensive roof mounted GNSS antenna deployments
ormanagingcomplexfibreconnectivity.
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